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A faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information. (Oxford Languages, n.d.)

The power or process of reproducing or recalling what has been learned and retained especially through associative mechanisms (Merriam-Webster, 2024)

Memory is how our brain takes in, stores, and recalls information. It's like a record of what we've done and helps us decide what to do next.

Memory includes the facts and details we remember on purpose and the stuff we just know without thinking. It can be short-term or long-term. Scientists talk about different types of memory: episodic (events), semantic (facts), procedural (skills), working (short-term tasks), sensory (immediate impressions), and prospective (future tasks).

Each type of memory has its own use, from remembering events (episodic) to knowing how to do things (procedural). But they all work similarly and rely on key brain parts like the hippocampus.

Memory helps us understand and navigate the world, and our personal memories shape our identity and give us feelings like nostalgia.

(Psychology Today., 2024)

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Stages of Memory image captured from Sousa, David. (2022). How the brain learns (6th ed.). Corwin. ISBN-13: 9781071855362 

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On this diagram, the information form the environment passes through the sensory and immediate memory, then to the working memory and finally the long term memory.

Sensory and Immediate Memory

Our brain processes more information from our environment in a single day than the biggest computer does in a year. This information is picked up by our five main senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. Besides these, we also have special receptors in our body that detect things like movement and position, balance, muscle stretch, and pain. But for now let's focus on the five senses since they’re the main ways our brain gathers external information and skills. All the sensory information enters the brain as electrical impulses from neurons firing in sequence along specific pathways. The brain, protected in the skull, doesn’t directly see or hear anything; instead, it interprets these impulses as vision and sound. Not all senses contribute equally to learning, with sight, hearing, and touch being the most important (Sousa, D., 2022). Each sense gives us different information about ourselves and our surroundings. For example, when choosing our favorite candy at the supermarket, we use our vision to find it among the other sweets. Our sense of touch helps us grip the package firmly enough to put it in the cart. When we eat the candy, we rely on our sense of smell and taste. And to tell our friends how delicious it is, we need our hearing so they can listen. While many people think vision is the most important sense, we should be thankful for all five senses because they each contribute to how we experience the world (Hutmacher, F., 2021).

To manage this overwhelming amount of data, our brain has a system to filter what’s important, involving the thalamus and the reticular activating system (RAS) in the brain stem. This system, known as the sensory register, acts like a filter, quickly determining what information is important. Most sensory information, except smell, goes to the thalamus first, which checks it for significance. Important data is processed, while the rest is ignored, like tuning out background noise when you’re studying. This process is called sensory filtering, and it happens mostly without us realizing it. The sensory register holds information for a very short time, usually less than a second, which is called sensory memory. For example, if you’re watching a football game and someone talks to you, you might still remember what they said moments later, even if you seemed distracted. This brief capture of sensory information helps us stay aware of important details just before they fade away (Sousa, D., 2022).

Short Term Memory

Researchers have worked hard to understand how our brains store memories and have come up with terms like short-term memory, immediate memory, and working memory. Short-term memory involves the initial steps of remembering things temporarily, which can eventually turn into long-term memory. It holds information for a brief period and is often linked with working memory, which helps us manipulate this information. For example, if you ask a friend for a phone number, you might remember it just long enough to make the call, but then you forget it because it wasn’t retained for future use. This is an example of how short-term memory operates (Sousa, D., 2022).

Immediate Memory

Immediate memory is the first stage where sensory data is temporarily held before it either fades away or moves to the next stage. It acts like a clipboard where information is kept briefly while we decide what to do with it. This type of memory holds data for about 30 seconds and operates both consciously and subconsciously. For instance, if you feel pain from tight shoes, you initially notice the discomfort, but eventually, your brain blocks this sensation unless something changes. Similarly, if you hear a siren, your immediate memory processes the sound until it’s no longer relevant, and then it’s forgotten. However, if the siren gets louder and closer, your brain signals that it’s important, and the information moves to working memory for further processing.

Working Memory

Working memory is where conscious processing of information occurs. It's like a work table where we can manipulate ideas and decide what to keep for long-term storage. This type of memory can handle a limited number of items at once, which can vary with age. For example, children can manage fewer items in working memory compared to adults. When we need to remember more information, we use strategies like chunking to group items together, making it easier to recall. However, working memory's capacity is limited, and overloading it can lead to forgetting information. This limitation influences how teachers should plan their lessons, ensuring that students are not overwhelmed with too much information at once. It is to divide the class time of 40 minutes to a 20 minutes segment to proportionately more primetime episodes compared to downtime episodes. In summary, understanding the limits of working memory can help teachers design more effective lessons that keep students engaged and improve their ability to retain information.(Sousa, D., 2022)

Working memory has to decide if it should store information for the future or let it go. This decision is crucial because if we don't store information, we can't recall it later. Teachers hope students will remember what they learn, so information needs to be stored in long-term memory. (Sousa, D., 2022)

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What Influences Storage?

Survival Value: Information that helps us survive gets stored quickly. For example, we remember not to touch hot stoves or walk in front of moving buses.

Emotional Experiences: Strong emotions increase the likelihood of storing information. We remember the best and worst events in our lives.

Classroom Learning: In the classroom, survival and emotional factors are minimal. Instead, two key questions help decide if information gets stored: "Does this make sense?" and "Does this have meaning?"

Making Sense and Finding Meaning

Making Sense: Information must fit into what the learner already knows. If a student says, "I don't understand," it means the information doesn't make sense to them.

Finding Meaning: Information must be relevant to the learner. If a student asks, "Why do I need to know this?" they might not find the information meaningful.

Examples

Driver's License Age: A 15-year-old will remember the age requirement for their state, which makes sense and has meaning. They are less likely to remember the requirement for another state, which only makes sense.

Teacher's Salary: A teacher will remember the average salary for their profession because it has both sense and meaning to them.

Teaching Implications

Teachers need to help students see both sense and meaning in what they learn. Even if students perform a task correctly, they might not remember it if it lacks meaning. When students ask why they need to know something, saying, "It will be on the test," isn't very helpful unless the student is motivated by test scores.

Long-Term Storage

Information gets stored in long-term memory when the hippocampus encodes it. This process usually happens during deep sleep. We know information is retained if a student can recall it after a certain period, typically 24 hours. Reviewing material just before a test puts it in working memory but doesn't ensure long-term retention.

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Long-term memory is mainly split into two types: declarative memory and nondeclarative memory. (Sousa, D., 2022)

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In 1987, Squire made an important discovery by distinguishing between declarative and nondeclarative memory, showing they rely on different parts of the brain. Declarative memory includes semantic and episodic memory, which help us remember facts and events and is mainly linked to the hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe. This type of memory is usually affected in people with amnesia.

Nondeclarative memory involves procedural memory, like learning motor skills, and relies on the striatum, cerebellum, and certain cortex areas. It also includes learning through conditioning and priming. Although declarative memory is often conscious and verbal, and nondeclarative memory is subconscious and nonverbal, there are exceptions. Declarative memories can be formed subconsciously, and nondeclarative memories can be learned consciously.

William James also proposed that memory can be split into short-term and long-term based on duration, with different brain areas involved in each. However, more recent research suggests that the same brain structures might be active during both short-term and long-term memory tasks.

Overall, memory processes are complex and interconnected, involving various brain regions and types of learning. Modern studies continue to explore these processes to understand how different types of memory function and interact. (Brem, A. K., Ran, K., & Pascual-Leone, A., 2013)

Long Term Memory (LTM)

Long-term memory (LTM) is about how memories become strong and stick around, resisting distractions. Consolidation, which is the process of strengthening memories, can be measured by how well we remember things when we're tested again later.

Two main types of LTM are episodic (like remembering events with time and place) and semantic (like facts without personal context). Both rely on certain brain parts. Even skills, like riding a bike (procedural memory), get stronger with LTM.

LTM is a series of steps: first, we learn (encoding), then we temporarily store (short-term memory, STM), and finally, we make it long-lasting (LTM). Sleep helps with this process by reducing noise in the brain, making memories clearer. Techniques like brain stimulation are used to study how this happens.

(Brem, A. K., Ran, K., & Pascual-Leone, A., 2013)

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Types of Memory and what are their specific functions

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Types of Memory and what are their specific functions

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Learning and memory are cognitive functions that include numerous subcomponents, which can be organized in various ways, one of those ways is based on their content or the methods through which they are acquired.

Episodic memory is like a mental time machine, bringing back specific events from our past. It can recall anything from recent chats to the emotions of a big life moment, like graduating high school. Autobiographical memory, a related idea, covers not just events but also facts about our lives, forming our personal story. This kind of memory isn't just about reminiscing; it's crucial for learning from our experiences and shaping who we are.

Semantic memory is like a treasure trove of knowledge that we've collected over time. It's not just about knowing facts; it's also about understanding concepts and making connections. For example, it helps us remember the year, understand what a foreign city's capital is, or decipher the meaning of new slang.

This type of memory is essential for learning because it helps us make sense of new information by linking it to what we already know. It's like having a mental library that we can constantly update and refer to when we encounter new ideas or experiences.

Procedural Memory. Finalizing a grade in "Power School" after a semester and recalling just what to do is a quintessential example of procedural memory. The term describes long-term memory for how to do things, both physical and mental, and is involved in the process of learning skills—from the basic ones people take for granted to those that require considerable practice. A related term is kinesthetic memory, which refers specifically to memory for physical behaviors. Procedural memory includes remembering.

Short Term Memory and Working Memory. Think of a short-term memory as a mental post-it note—it holds onto info for a short while, like a new face or a quick fact. Working memory, on the other hand, is like a mental whiteboard where we jot down and manipulate info as we think.

For instance, short-term memory helps us recall a movie scene from moments ago or the look of someone we just met. Working memory kicks in when we solve a math problem in our heads or remember a person's name mentioned at the start of a sentence.

These memory types are crucial for learning—they help us process new info, make connections, and solve problems on the fly. They're like mental tools we use every day.

Prospective memory is like having a mental to-do list—it helps us remember things we need to do in the future. Whether it's calling someone back, stopping at the store, or paying bills regularly, this type of memory is crucial for staying organized and fulfilling our plans.

In learning, prospective memory helps us stay on track with assignments, deadlines, and goals. It's like having a reliable reminder system in our minds, ensuring we don't forget important tasks and responsibilities.

(Psychology Today, 2024)

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Cognitive psychologist Robert Bjork introduced the idea of 'desirable difficulties', suggesting that learning strategies that make studying more challenging (e.g., spaced repetition, varied practice) can improve long-term retention and transfer of knowledge. This emphasizes the importance of designing challenging educational activities.

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The speed at which we remember things depends on a few factors.

Adequacies of cues we use to jog our memory can make a big difference. It's not like our brain is a perfect recorder; when we remember something, we're piecing it together based on the clues we get. So, having a great memory isn't as crucial as having strong cues to help us recall (Sousa, D., 2022).

Mood and beliefs also play a role. When we're feeling down, we're more likely to remember sad stuff, while happy moments come to mind when we're feeling good. Plus, we tend to think positively about choices we've made and negatively about ones we didn't pick. That's why it can be tough to see past choices in a fair way. Talking openly in small groups can sometimes help us see things more clearly (Sousa, D., 2022).

Context of retrieval. Where and how we remember things matters too. If we try to remember something in the same kind of place we learned it, we're more likely to get it right (Sousa, D., 2022).

System of Storage. Our brain also stores memories in different ways depending on our interests and past experiences. So, if two students learn the same thing but connect it differently to what they already know, they might take different amounts of time to remember it later. This is why some students might need more time than others to recall the same information. When teachers always pick the quickest students, it can make slower ones feel left out and miss chances to reinforce what they've learned. It can make everyone think speed equals smarts, which isn't always true (Sousa, D., 2022).

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It's widely understood that individuals absorb information at different rates. However, the speed of learning does not necessarily equate to intelligence. The rate at which someone grasps and retains information is termed the "rate of learning." This rate is influenced by factors such as motivation levels, emotional state, level of concentration, and the learning environment. A visual metaphor for this process is like arrows transferring data from our senses to memory, and then back when we recall information. Initially, it was believed that the speed of recall was primarily determined by genetics. Yet, research indicates that it's more about how one has learned to retain information.

In our society, success and intelligence are often measured by the speed of recall, such as in timed assessments or quiz competitions. However, we now understand that the ability to recall quickly is linked more closely to our learning methods, which can be developed and enhanced. This realization opens the door to techniques that can improve our memory retention and speed.

Learning and remembering are distinct skills; individuals may excel at one and struggle with the other, or possess proficiency in both, or neither. Unfortunately, society tends to label individuals based on these traits, such as labeling someone a "genius" if they learn and recall quickly or an "underachiever" if they learn rapidly but recall slowly. These labels oversimplify complex learning processes and disregard the fact that everyone learns uniquely and at their own pace.

Educators can play a crucial role by employing strategies that aid memory retention, such as chunking, which involves breaking information into manageable segments. This approach recognizes the diversity in learning styles and supports students in optimizing their learning potential.

(Sousa, D., 2022)

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The effects of chunking on the learning environment are pretty substantial. Chunking helps us work around the limitations in our thinking and remembering abilities, like our attention span, working memory, and long-term memory. It's like packing a bunch of separate things into one bigger thing, making it easier to manage.

When we chunk information, we can handle more of it at once. This means we can solve problems better because we can pull in more relevant knowledge from our long-term memory into our working memory. Imagine trying to remember a long list of numbers—chunking lets us group them in a way that's easier to remember.

Chunking isn't just about numbers, though. It's a skill we use in all sorts of areas, like reading, learning poems, or playing chess. Experts are particularly good at chunking because their brains have learned to organize information efficiently. For example, a doctor can quickly diagnose a condition because they've chunked lots of medical knowledge into meaningful patterns.

Our past experiences also play a big role in chunking. Think about reading a sentence versus a jumble of letters. The meaningful sentence is easier to remember because our brains chunk it into one item, while the random letters overwhelm our working memory. Practice with chunking can even help with cramming for tests, although that might not always transfer to long-term memory.

Overall, chunking is a powerful tool for learning. It helps us handle more information, solve problems better, and make connections between ideas. Teachers can definitely leverage chunking techniques to improve how students learn and remember information.

(Sousa, D., 2022)

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Creating a memory involves turning some of the information we experience into a lasting form. Some of these memories are stored in our long-term memory, where we can access them later. Many factors during and after the creation of a memory determine what gets saved and how much of it is kept.

Why do we create memories? Memories help us in many ways, like letting us learn from past experiences and storing knowledge about the world. One of the main purposes of memory is to make sure our behavior fits the current situation and to help us adjust based on what we've learned.

What is encoding? Encoding is the first step of making a memory. It’s how the details of what we experience are changed into a form that our brain can store. We are more likely to encode information we are focusing on and that has personal meaning to us.

What is retention and consolidation? Retention, or storage, is when information is kept in memory after it has been encoded. These memories are not perfect; some of the encoded information fades over time, while other parts stay. Memory consolidation is the process in the brain that makes long-term memories.

How does sleep affect your memory? Sleep helps us keep our memories, but scientists are still figuring out exactly how. Studies show that people remember better if they sleep after studying instead of staying awake. It is thought that sleep helps with memory consolidation, and it might also prevent new memories from interfering with the ones we’ve just made.

(Psychology Today, 2024)

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We usually think of memories as mental snapshots of our experiences or facts we know, but they are actually the result of brain cell activities. Scientists have figured out which parts of the brain are key for memory and understand how these mental processes have a physical form.

Which Brain Parts Are Important for Memory?

The hippocampus and parts of the medial temporal lobe are really important for many kinds of memory. Other parts of the brain, like the cerebral cortex (the outer layer) and deeper areas such as the basal ganglia, also play roles. The amygdala is crucial too, especially for adding emotions to memories. The brain area involved depends on the type of memory.

How Is Memory Stored in the Brain?

Memory happens through changes in the brain's neural networks. Neurons, or brain cells, connect via synapses, held together by neurotransmitters (chemical messengers). Memory storage likely involves changes in the strength of these synaptic connections in the brain areas linked to memory.

What Is an Engram?

An engram, or memory trace, is the set of changes in the brain that form a memory. These changes happen at the synapses connecting brain cells. Research shows that an engram isn't in just one spot but spread across multiple interconnected areas. Engram cells are groups of cells that are activated and changed during learning and reactivated during remembering.

How Can This Be Used in the Learning Environment?

Understanding how memories are stored in the brain can help improve learning techniques. Teachers can use this knowledge to create more effective learning strategies, such as:

Repetition: Repeating information helps strengthen synaptic connections.

Emotional Connection: Adding an emotional element can make information more memorable.

Active Engagement: Activities that require active participation can enhance learning and memory formation.

Variety of Techniques: Using different methods, such as visual aids, discussions, and hands-on activities, can engage multiple brain areas and aid memory retention.

By using these strategies, teachers can help students better retain and recall information, making the learning process more efficient and effective.

(Psychology Today, 2024)