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Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Plato proposed that the human psyche was the seat of all knowledge and that the human mind was imprinted with all of the knowledge it needed. The school of psychology that he fit in was functionalism. The contribution he had to psychology was Plato defined 3 aspects of the psyche--reason, feeling and appetite. He also wrote about the duality of the psyche and the relationship between mind and body.  He believed the action of the humors of the body affects one's mental state.

"History of Psychology." http://www.psyking.net/id19.htm. Accessed 13 Mar. 2023.

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Aristotle was an Ancient Greek philosopher born in Northern Greece. At age 17, he joined the Platonic Academy in Athens where he studied for 20 years.

Aristotle is referred to as the first behaviorist in psychology. His work aligned very closely with natural philosophy and included subjects that today would be regarded as physics, biology, and other natural sciences. Aristotle also advocated for studying the natural world through the use of questions and pushed for people to really ask themselves what was happening around them in order to gain a greater understanding of natural processes.

One of Aristotle's greatest contributions is his introduction of a formal system of reasoning/logic. This framework set the foundations for questioning validity in psychology as well as identifying factual arguments/statements.

Citations:
Kenny, Anthony J.P. and Amadio, Anselm H.. "Aristotle". Encyclopedia Britannica, 3 Jan. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle. Accessed 6 March 2023

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John Locke was born in England and was educated at Oxford. He served as a private physician and tutor before becoming a writer in his later years.

Locke is mostly know for his economic and political views. In psychology, he promoted the idea of a tabula rasa. In this idea, humans are born with a "blank slate" and develop their intelligence and personality based on their interactions with others, education, and environment.

Many of his ideas form the basis of both behaviorism and social psychology.

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Mesmer was a German physician whose system of therapeutics, known as mesmerism, was the forerunner of the modern practice of hypnotism. Mesmer believed that the gravitational attraction of the planets affected human health by affecting an invisible fluid found in the human body and throughout nature. Mesmer's contribution to psychology was creating the idea of hypnosis.
"Franz Anton Mesmer | German physician - Encyclopedia Britannica." 1 Mar. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Franz-Anton-Mesmer. Accessed 13 Mar. 2023.

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The eldest of three brothers, all of whom achieved scientific distinction, Weber was a professor at the University of Leipzig from 1818 until 1871. He was a German anatomist and physiologist whose fundamental studies of the sense of touch introduced a concept—that of the just-noticeable difference, the smallest difference perceivable between two similar stimuli—that is important to psychology and sensory physiology.

Ernst Heinrich Weber - Oxford Reference

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Gustav Fechner was a German physicist and philosopher often referred to as the founder of psychophysics. He first studied biological science before turning to physics and mathematics. Gustav took up the role of a physics professor at the University of Leipzig in 1834.

Fechner's work is closely aligned with the recognition of stimuli by the senses and he is responsible for the majority of the science-revolving thresholds. He coined the term absolute threshold and did an abundant amount of research around the just-noticeable difference. Because of this, Fechner can be associated with behaviorism due to his research of stimuli and sensations.

Fechner is regarded as the founder of the field of psychophysics which involves a set of methods for relating stimuli from the environment to measured sensations (stimulus-response relationship.) He was also important in the introduction of collecting quantifiable data in order to make scientific information reliable (scientific method.)

Citations:
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Gustav Fechner". Encyclopedia Britannica, 14 Nov. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav-Fechner. Accessed 9 March 2023.

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Hermon Von Helmholtz was a German scientist. He was a philosopher who made fundamental contributions to physiology, optics, electrodynamics, mathematics, and meteorology. He is best known for his statement of the law of the conservation of energy. He brought to his laboratory research the ability to analyze the philosophical assumptions on which much of 19th-century science was based, and he did so with clarity and precision.

Citations:
“Hermann von Helmholtz | German Scientist and Philosopher.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/biography/Hermann-von-Helmholtz.

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Paul Broca was a French physician and anatomist who made significant contributions to the field of neuroscience. His most notable achievement was the discovery of a specific area of the brain, now known as "Broca's area," which is responsible for language production. Through his research, Broca was able to demonstrate the link between this brain region and language abilities.

Joynt, Robert. “Paul Broca | French anthropologist and pathologist | Britannica.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 16 February 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Broca. Accessed 11 April 2023.

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Jean Charcot received his M.D. from the University of Paris in 1853 before getting appointed 3 years later as physician of the Central Hospital bureau. Charcot's start as a professor at the University of Paris also marked the beginning of his lifelong connection with the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris. Here in 1882, Charcot introduced Europe's greatest neurological clinic at that time.

Charcot can be referred to as a functionalist due to his studies relating to the anatomical purposes of specific parts of the brain and body. One of his most popular studies revealed and described the symptoms of locomotor ataxia. Charcot also studied hypnosis and hysteria.

Jean Charcot had various contributions to the physical/anatomical side of psychology. His recognition of the relationship between clinical and anatomical findings paved the way for groundbreaking discoveries such as the physical side effects of multiple sclerosis. Charcot also influenced multiple famous psychologists through his teachings such as Sigmund Freud, Gustave Le Bon, and Pierre Marie.

Citations:
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Jean-Martin Charcot". Encyclopedia Britannica, 25 Nov. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Martin-Charcot. Accessed 8 March 2023.

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Wundt founded experimental psychology as a discipline and became a pioneer of cultural psychology. He was a german physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the fathers of modern psychology. Wundt, who distinguished psychology as a science from philosophy and biology, was the first person ever to call himself a psychologist. He established the first academic journal for psychological research. He was best recognized as having established psychology as a discipline independent of philosophy, incorporating elements of anatomy and physiology. He provided the scientific method to investigate the mind, which had long been believed to be unknowable.
“Wilhelm Max Wundt | Encyclopedia.com.” Www.encyclopedia.com, www.encyclopedia.com/people/medicine/psychology-and-psychiatry-biographies/wilhelm-max-wundt#:~:text=Wundt%27s%20research%20findings%20laid%20the%20groundwork%20for%20psychologists. Accessed 6 Mar. 2023.

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William James, an American philosopher and psychologist, led the pragmatism movement and helped found the psychological movement of functionalism. James wrote The Principles of Psychology in 1890, which gave us insight into the "stream of thought" and how babies interpret the world. With James' studies, he believed that all aspects of society have uses for the better of humans.

James, Henry, et al. “William James (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 7 September 2000, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/james/. Accessed 8 March 2023.

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Hall graduated from Williams College in 1867 and went on to study the develpment of children and their behavior and is often regarded as the founder of child psychology. Hall branched off of the belief of current psychologists such as Charles Darwin and Sigmund Freud. Hall was a scientist following psychoanalytics and researched children's behavioral habits such as lying.
“G. Stanley Hall | American psychologist | Britannica.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 28 January 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/G-Stanley-Hall. Accessed 6 March 2023.

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Wernicke studied medicine at the University of Breslau and did graduate work at Breslau, Berlin, and Vienna before entering practice in Berlin. In 1885 he joined the faculty at Breslau, where he remained until 1904. He was a German neurologist who related nerve diseases to specific areas of the brain. He is best known for his descriptions of the aphasias, disorders interfering with the ability to communicate in speech or writing.

Carl Wernicke | German neurologist | Britannica

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Pavlov, Ivan was a Russian and Soviet experimental neurologist, psychologist and physiologist.  The school of psychology he fits in is behaviorism. His contribution to psychology is  his discovery of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs.

"Ivan Pavlov | Biography, Theory, Conditioning, Dog, & Facts." 23 Feb. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ivan-Pavlov. Accessed 13 Mar. 2023.

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Herman Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of memory research. His most notable achievement was the development of the "Forgetting Curve," which describes how information is forgotten over time when it is not reinforced. Ebbinghaus's research on memory also significantly impacted the understanding of how memory works and the factors that affect memory retention.

“Hermann Ebbinghaus | German psychologist | Britannica.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 February 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hermann-Ebbinghaus. Accessed 11 April 2023.

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Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis had many extremely impactful ideas that shaped how many psychologists view people. Psychoanalysis, his biggest contribution, was an optic into the therapy of mentally ill patients. Another contribution to psychology would be developing the idea of the human unconscious. The study of the unconscious was challenging because he had to rely completely on the truthfulness of the patients. Freud grew up in Austria but later died in England.
(“Sigmund Freud - Psychoanalytic theory | Britannica”)

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Alfred Binet was a French psychologist who invented the first intelligence test, the Binet-Simon test, in the early 1900s. This test measured a child's intelligence and identified those who needed extra help in school.

“Alfred Binet | Biography & Contributions | Britannica.” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-Binet. Accessed 30 March 2023.

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After attending Smith College to earn her undergraduate degree in classics and philosophy in 1882, Mary Calkins was invited to attend psychology seminars at Harvard University. Even after passing all the requirements for a Harvard Ph.D., Calkins was denied a Harvard degree based solely on the fact that she was a woman. This setback did not stop her from breaking ground for women in the field of psychology because she went on to establish the first psychology lab at an American women's college, became the first female president of the American Psychological Association, and continued to lecture and teach her discoveries until her death in 1930.

Mary Calkins can be categorized as in being in between a structuralist and a functionalist in terms of psychological schools of thought. She based her studies on how the conscious self interprets and recognizes data, as well as strongly relying on self introspection as the method of studying the mind.

Mary Calkins established the first psychological labratory at Wellesley College, invented the paired-associates technique for memory/learning, published 4 books and over 100 papers regarding psychology and philosophy.

Citations:
Boatwright, K.J. & Nolan, B.B. (2005).  Executive summary: Proposal for a posthumous degree for Mary Whiton Calkins, the "Mother of Psychology": Archival evidence demonstrating completion of doctoral requirements for the Harvard doctoral degree.  Kalamazoo, MI.

Calkins, M.W. (1930).  Autobiography of Mary Whiton Calkins.  In Murchison, Carl [Ed.] History of Psychology in Autobiography Vol. 1, pp. 31-61.  Worcester, MA:  Clark University Press.

Furumoto, L. (1979).  Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930), Fourteenth President of the American Psychological Association.  Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 15, 346-356.

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Charles Edward Spearman specialized in statistics and was arguably the leading psychometrician of the early twentieth century.  Spearman's contributions to reliability theory, factor analysis, and the theory of “g” or general intelligence continue to influence psychometric and intelligence research more than 100 years later.
“Spearman, Charles (1863–1945).” Northwestern Scholars, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2015, www.scholars.northwestern.edu/en/publications/spearman-charles-18631945. Accessed 6 Mar. 2023.

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“Alfred Adler | Austrian psychiatrist | Britannica.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 3 February 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-Adler. Accessed 30 March 2023.

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Walter Cannon was an American physiologist who made significant contributions to the field of medicine. His most notable achievement was the development of the concept of homeostasis. Cannon's research on the body's response to stress and the fight-or-flight response also significantly impacted the understanding of how the body reacts to different stimuli.

“Walter Bradford Cannon | Medical Education - Harvard Medical School.” Medical Education - Harvard Medical School, https://meded.hms.harvard.edu/walter-bradford-cannon. Accessed 11 April 2023.

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Edward Thorndike was a pioneer of educational psychology and animal behavior research in the early 20th century. He devised the puzzle box experiment to study how cats learn by trial and error and reward and punishment. He also developed the concepts of connectionism, transfer of learning, and intelligence testing based on his empirical observations.

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Carl Jung was Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist who founded analytic psychology, branching off of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. Jung contributed to the ideas of extroverted and introverted personalities. Jung developed treatments for mental illness after working at an asylum in Zürich.

“Carl Jung - Character of his psychotherapy | Britannica.” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Jung/Character-of-his-psychotherapy. Accessed 8 March 2023.

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Yerkes was a pioneer in the study both of human and primate intelligence and of the social behaviors of gorillas and chimpanzees. Along with John D. Dodson, Yerkes developed the Yerkes Dodson law relating arousal to performance. As time went on, Yerkes began to propagate his support for eugenics in the 1910s and 1920s. His works are largely considered biased toward outmoded racialist theories by modern academics. He also served on the board of trustees of Science Service, now known as society for science and the public from 1921-1925.

Robert Yerkes Was Influential in Comparative Psychology (verywellmind.com)

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Terman's Ph.D. thesis centered on mental tests that could be used to distinguish gifted students from those that were cognitively impaired. He developed tests that measured complex cognitive abilities and included measures of creativity, mathematical ability, memory, motor skills, logic, and language mastery. Lewis Terman was an influential psychologist who is known for his version of the Stanford-Binet intelligence test and for his longitudinal study of giftedness. His research is the longest-lasting longitudinal study ever conducted. His work added important contributions to the understanding of how intelligence influences life success, health, and outcomes.

Lewis Terman Biography (verywellmind.com)

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American psychologist who codified and publicized behaviorism, an approach to psychology that, in his view, was restricted to the objective, experimental study of the relations between environmental events and human behavior. Watsonian behaviorism became the dominant psychology in the US during the 1920s and ’30s. he argued forcefully for the use of animal subjects in psychological study and described instinct as a series of reflexes activated by heredity.
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “John B. Watson | American Psychologist.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 5 Jan. 2019, www.britannica.com/biography/John-B-Watson.

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During his adolescence, Wertheimer played the violin, composed symphonic and chamber music, and generally seemed destined to become a musician. He was one of the founders, with Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler, of Gestalt psychology, which attempts to examine psychological phenomena as structural wholes, rather than breaking them down into components.

Max Wertheimer Biography (1880-1943) (verywellmind.com)

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Hermann Rorschach was a Swiss psychologist who devised the inkblot test. The Rorschach test is based on the human tendency to project interpretations and feelings onto ambiguous stimuli—in this case, inkblots. From these cues, trained observers are supposed to be able to pinpoint deeper personality traits and impulses in the person taking the test. Rorschach's contribution to psychology was the continued creation of the inkblot test.
"Hermann Rorschach Swiss Psychiatrist." Britannica.Com, 29 Mar. 2023, www.britannica.com/biography/Hermann-Rorschach. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Clark Hull was an American psychologist who received his undergraduate from the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor and received his Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Wisconsin. During his early years as a member of Yale University's Institute of Human Relations, Hull constructed his global theory of behavior which involved conducting principles from various sources such as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and Edward L. Thorndike. Edward Thorndike's emphasis on reinforcement in learning was an especially strong influence on Hull's work.

Hull's research closely aligns him with the school of behaviorism with most of his studies focusing on learning and measuring aptitude. Hull's approach to the study of behavior is believed to be more influential to behaviorism that the actual specifics of his findings.

Clark Hull is best known for his Drive-Reduction theory which seeks to explain behavior, learning, and motivation. The drive-reduction theory is based on the concept of homeostasis and proposes that all motivation emerges as a result of biological needs. A drive in this theory is defined by Hull as a state of tension caused by physiological or biological needs such as thirst, the need for warmth, and hunger.

Citations:
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Clark L. Hull". Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 May. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Clark-L-Hull. Accessed 16 April 2023.

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Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who attended the universities of Freiburg, Göttingen and Berlin to study medicine. Horney recognized her interest in psychoanalysis so from 1913 to 1915 she studied analysis, from 1915 to 1920 she worked in connection with Berlin hospitals in their psychiatric units, and in 1920 she began teaching at the newly organized Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute. After moving to the United States and joining the New York Psychoanalytic Institute, she was expelled from the group as a result of her refusal to abide by the Freudian theory, leading her to create her own organization, the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis.

Horney is affiliated with the psychoanalysis school of psychology. She disagreed with Freud's view of female psychology and that it should be treated just as a branch of male psychology. Instead, she believed that female psychiatric disturbances are a result of the male-dominated society which also developed Freudian theory.

Horney is best known for her revolutionary introductions to female psychology and going against traditional Freudian theories of female psychology. Horney outright rejected Freud's theory of envy, and in retaliation, introduced the concept of womb envy. Horney also proposed that environmental and social conditions determine the majority of personality and are the main causes of personality disorders and neuroses, as opposed to Freud's suggested  instinctual/biological drives as being the main factor. Ultimately, Karen Horney was a pioneer in female psychology and is one of Freud's biggest challengers.

Citations:
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Karen Horney". Encyclopedia Britannica, 19 Jan. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karen-Horney. Accessed 16 April 2023.

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Kurt, Koffka was a german psychologist, Kurt Koffka helped establish the theories of Gestalt psychology. Kofka promoted this new psychology in Europe and introduced it to the United States. He was responsible for systematizing Gestalt psychology into a coherent body of theories. The school of psychology that Koffka fits in is Gestalt. Some major contributions that Koffka has contributed to in the world of psychology was introducing the theories of Gestalt psychology.
duignan, brian, editor. “Kurt Koffka German Psychologist.” 14 Mar. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kurt-Koffka. Accessed 6 Mar. 2023.

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Edward was an American psychologist and a professor of psychology at the university of California Berkeley. Through his theories and works, he founded what is now a branch of psychology known as purposive behavioralism. Edward also promoted the concept known as latent learning first coined by Blodgett (1929). As a review of general psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Tolman as the 45th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

Biography of Edward C. Tolman (verywellmind.com)

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American psychologist who was instrumental in the development of psychometrics, the science that measures mental functions, and who developed statistical techniques for multiple-factor analysis of performance on psychological tests. His principal work, The Vectors of Mind, presented Thurstone’s method of factor analysis to explain correlations between results in psychological tests. Thurstone rejected the idea that any one factor had more general application than others and evaluated all factors influencing performance on a given test at one time, devising new statistical techniques to perform the factor analysis.

Thurston's Theory of Intelligence - Psynso

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Wolfgang Köhler was a German psychologist who left Germany in 1935 for the US after Nazi Germany dismissed Jewish professors from universities and required professors to give a Nazi salute at the beginning of their classes. Köhler attended the University of Tübingen, the University of Bonn, and the University of Berlin, where he studied the connection between psychology and physics. Köhler collaborated with psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka at the Psychological Insitute in Frankfurt, Germany to fund the basics of Gestalt psychology.

Köhler made great contributions to Gestalt psychology by laying down the foundations of the theory with fellow psychologists Kurt Koffka and Max Wertheimer. The famous saying from Köhler regarding Gestalt psychology is "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts", meaning that in order to accurately examine and study the mind, we need to look at the entire picture and all the factors put together rather than looking at each part separately.

Köhler is best known for his experimental studies of chimpanzee problem-solving which led him to his theory of insight learning. Insight learning as defined by Köhler is a form of learning that involves a sudden understanding of the problem through cognitive rearrangement rather than through trial and error as proposed by Edward Thorndike. Köhler studied chimpanzees on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands since they have a more similar brain structure to humans than to the chemical makeup of lower apes. These experiments revealed that apes indicate signs of insight and exhibit intelligent behavior common in humans.

Citations:
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Wolfgang Köhler". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Jan. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wolfgang-Kohler. Accessed 17 April 2023.

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source: Harvard University Psychology Department

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Karl Lashley was an American psychologist who was encouraged by his mother to enjoy learning at a very young age. After graduating high school at age 14, Lashley attended West Virginia University for his Bachelor of Arts. Lashley also completed his master's degree and continued his education career at Johns Hopkins University for his Ph.D. in genetics in 1911. Lashley taught at the University of Minnesota, the University of Chicago, and Harvard University.

Lashley considered himself a behaviorist because he experimented with surgery on rats and examined the rat's behavior after damaging certain areas of a rat's cortex. Lashley was interested in the association between parts of the brain and behavior, which his experiments reflect.

Lashley is best known for pioneering experiments on rats through means of surgically-inducing brain lesions or by damaging/removing certain parts of the brain. These studies allowed Lashley to propose theories of how the brain stores and processes information.
Citations:
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Karl Lashley". Encyclopedia Britannica, 3 Aug. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karl-Lashley. Accessed 17 April 2023.

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Following in her fathers footsteps, Anna Freud "was also an influential psychologist who had a major impact on psychoanalysis, psychotherapy, and child psychology." She is recognised as the founder of child psychoanalysis, having impacted the way we view childrens behavior and mind.

Cherry, Kendra. “Anna Freud Biography and Contributions to Psychology.” Verywell Mind, 26 November 2020, https://www.verywellmind.com/anna-freud-biography-1895-1982-2795536. Accessed 6 March 2023.

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Nathaniel Kleitman was known as the father of sleep research. Kleitman discovered REM and the effects that it has on dreams. Kleitman made the discovery that if awoken during REM sleep people will most likely be able to recall their dreams, while if someone is awoken during NREM sleep they will most likely not remember their dream. Kleitman can be classified as a psychoanalyst due to the fact that he examined people's unconscious and dreams, similarly to Freud.

Reed, Christopher. “Nathaniel Kleitman |.” The Guardian, 24 August 1999, https://www.theguardian.com/news/1999/aug/25/guardianobituaries3. Accessed 8 March 2023.

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Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologies, He is most famous for his theory of cognitive development, his theory looks at how children develop intellectually throughout the course of childhood. His contribution to psychology was his research on children's cognitive development. Piaget studied the intellectual development of his own three children and created a theory that described the stages that children pass through in the development of intelligence and formal thought processes.

"Jean Piaget Biography (1896-1980)." Verywellmind.Com, 2 Nov. 2022, www.verywellmind.com/jean-piaget-biography-1896-1980-2795549. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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was a Romanian American psychologist. He developed well-known intelligence scales, such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale and the Wechsler Intelligence scale for children. A review of German psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Wechsler as the 51st most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

David Wechsler - New World Encyclopedia

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Gordon Allport was an American psychologist who studied personality. He believed that personality was more than just traits and included a person's beliefs, values, and motivations. Allport's research led to the development of the trait theory of personality, which describes different traits that make up a person's personality. His work emphasized the importance of studying people as a whole, not just specific behaviors. Allport's contributions have had a lasting impact on our understanding of human personality.

Cherry, Kendra. “Gordon Allport's Impact on the Field of Psychology.” Verywell Mind, 23 September 2020, https://www.verywellmind.com/gordon-allport-biography-2795508. Accessed 30 March 2023.

Cite

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source: University of South Carolina Dornsife

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J.P. Guilford was an American psychologist who first expressed his interest in individual differences as a child when he would observe the different abilities present in his own family members. Guilford attended the University of Nebraska for his undergraduate, and continued onto Cornell University for graduate school where he would study under Edward Titchener from 1919 to 1921. Guilford held many professoring positions during his career, including the University of Kansas from 1927 to 1928, the University of Nebraska from 1928 to 1940 as an Associate Professor, and the University of Southern California as a psychology professor from 1940 to 1967.

J.P. Guilford can be associated with the cognitivism field of psychology due to his efforts to identify ways to measure the different types of human intelligence and creativity. Guilford was also a practitioner of psychophysics when it came to the study of human intellect, and proposed a model with 180 independent factors (abilities) that contribute to an individual's intelligence.

Guilford is best remembered for laying the groundwork of the theory of multiple intelligences by utilizing factor analysis in  the field of personality assessments. Guilford was a strong supporter of creativity in individuals and valued the differences among people. His work sought to discover ways to understand human intellect without the use of a single test score, leading him to coin the terms divergent and convergent thinking. These two methods propose the different ways people process and think through problems to eventually come up with either 1 answer or multiple debatable answers.

Citaions:
"J. P. Guilford." New World Encyclopedia, . 12 Mar 2018, 00:03 UTC. 16 Apr 2023, 21:36 https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=J._P._Guilford&oldid=1009682

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Ralph Gerard was an American neurophysiologist and behavioral scientist. He received his Ph.D. in physiology from the University of Chicago in 1921 and his M.D. in 1924 from Rush Medical College of Chicago. In 1928, Gerard joined the physiology department at the University of Chicago and in 1941 was appointed professor of physiology and neurophysiology. Gerard also headed the Neuropsychiatric Institute of the College of Medicine at the University of Illinois from 1952 to 1955. From 1955 to 1963, Gerard served at the Mental Health Research Institute at the University of Michigan, which he helped fund.

Gerard is considered a behaviorist due to his work in clarifying the relationship between the human brain and the nervous system. Gerard was one of the first to challenge the previous theory of mental disease having psychological and cultural origins, arguing that unbalanced body chemistry is actually the cause of schizophrenia.

Ralph Gerard is best known for his work with the nervous system, nerve metabolism, and electrical impulses of nerve cells, laying the foundation of modern research on learning, memory, and mental illness. During his career, Gerard wrote around 500 scientific papers and 9 books covering the biology of language, ethics, biology & cultural evolution, education, and the effect of science on public policy.

Citations:
Saba, Vanessa. “Ralph Waldo Gerard Dies at 73; Tied Schizophrenia to Chemistry (Published 1974).” The New York Times, 19 February 1974, https://www.nytimes.com/1974/02/19/archives/ralph-waldo-gerard-dies-at-73-tied-schizophrenia-to-chemistry-phd.html. Accessed 16 April 2023

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Carl Rogers was an American psychologist and among the founders of the humanistic approach in psychology. Carl Rogers is widely regarded as one of the most eminent thinkers in psychology. He is best known for developing the psychotherapy method called client-centered therapy. Carl Rogers had an enormous influence on both psychology and education, therapists cite Rogers as their primary influence than any other psychologist.

"Carl Rogers Psychologist Biography." Verywellmind.Com, 2 Dec. 2022, www.verywellmind.com/carl-rogers-biography-1902-1987-2795542. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Erik Erikson was a German-American developmental psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of human development. His most notable achievement was the development of the "Psychosocial Stages of Development," which describes the different stages of social and emotional development that humans go through from infancy to adulthood.

Mcleod, Saul. “Erik Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development.” Simply Psychology, 29 March 2023, https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html. Accessed 11 April 2023.

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B.F. Skinner was a pioneer of behaviorism, the study of how environmental stimuli shape human and animal actions. He invented the Skinner box, a device that rewarded or punished rats and pigeons for pressing levers or pecking keys. He was a Behaviorism's Mastermind.
“BF Skinner Behaviorism Theory Explained.” HRF, 22 June 2017, healthresearchfunding.org/bf-skinner-behaviorism-theory-explained/.

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Harry Harlow was an American psychologist who received his bachelor's degree, master's degree, and Ph.D. in psychology all from Stanford University in California. In 1930 after earning his doctoral degree, Harlow started teaching at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. During his time teaching at the University of Wisconsin (he remained here for his entire career), Harlow founded and became the director of the Primate Laboratory at the university.

Harlow can be categorized as a behavior psychologist based on his research and theories. Harlow's experiments and studies with monkeys led him to challenge the behavioral theory of attachment which proposes that infants form attachments with caregivers that provide food, and instead introduce his explanation that the attachment develops as a result of the need for physical comfort for emotional support.

Harlow is best known for his studies of attachment styles and dependency behavior between mother and offspring through the controversial use of monkeys. Harlow would separate the rhesus monkeys from their mothers at a very young age, place them in different manipulated situations, and study their behavior. From these experiments, Harlow was able to prove the importance of caregiving and companionship in the social and cognitive development of animals.

Citations:
“Harry F. Harlow - Students.” Britannica Kids, https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Harry-F-Harlow/311600. Accessed 16 April 2023

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Raymond Cattell was a British-American psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of personality psychology. His most notable achievement was the development of the "16 Personality Factors" model, which identified 16 personality traits that are used to describe individual differences in personality. Cattell's research on personality measurement and the use of factor analysis also significantly impacted the understanding of how to measure and describe personality.

Cherry, Kendra. “Life and Career of Psychologist Raymond Cattell.” Verywell Mind, 10 April 2020, https://www.verywellmind.com/raymond-cattell-biography-1905-1998-2795518. Accessed 11 April 2023.

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Abraham Harold Maslow was born April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist who developed a hierarchy of needs to explain human motivation. His theory suggests that people have a number of basic needs that must be met before people move up the hierarchy to pursue more social, emotional, and self-actualizing needs. Maslow's contribution to psychology was creating the hierarchy of needs.

"ABRAHAM MASLOW." Webspace.Ship.Edu, 14 Mar. 2023, webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/maslow.html. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.
"Biography of Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)." Verywellmind.Com, 14 Mar. 2023, www.verywellmind.com/biography-of-abraham-maslow-1908-1970-2795524. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Roger Wolcott Sperry was an American neuropsychologist, neurobiologist, cognitive neuroscientist, and Nobel laureate who, together with David Hunter Hubel and Torsten Nils Wiesel, won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his work with split-brain research. Cognitive psychologist.
“The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1981.” NobelPrize.org, 2019, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1981/sperry/facts/.

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Mary Ainsworth was a psychologist who studied how babies and their caregivers form emotional bonds. Her "Strange Situation" experiment helped her identify different types of attachment. Her research showed that having a strong emotional connection with a caregiver is important for a child's growth and happiness.

Cherry, Kendra. “Mary Ainsworth: Biography, Theories, and Influence.” Verywell Mind, 21 April 2022, https://www.verywellmind.com/mary-ainsworth-biography-2795501. Accessed 30 March 2023.

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Hans Eysenck was a German-born psychologist who attended University College in London in 1934, where he received his Ph.D. in the psychology department. In 1955, Eysenck began his job as a psychology professor at the Institute of Psychiatry at King's College, where he published much of his work and assisted in the launch of the psychological journal "Personality and Individual Differences." As the excellent writer that he was, Eysenck wrote thousands of articles and around 100 books during his career. He is often known as the most-cited psychologist in scientific journals.

Eysenck's studies categorize him as an advocate of "nature" psychology due to his strong belief that genetics is the biggest determinant of personality. He also countered Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, stating that it was unscientific and did not have reliable evidence. In the debate of nature vs. nature, Eysenck argued in favor of nature and that the genetic makeup of people decides their personality/non-materialistic characteristics. Because of this, Eysenck aligned himself as a behaviorist as his preferred method of research was comparing manipulated variables and determining how different personality types respond. This method of studying behavior and looking at the effects of independent variables can be associated with behaviorism.

Eysenck is best known for his controversial statements regarding nature in determining personality/intelligence. Although his belief of genetics determining personality alone is harmless, he furthered his theory by claiming that different racial groups have different levels of intelligence. Many people questioned the ethics of his research and even challenged his views. Despite people criticizing him for racism and discrimination, Eysenck continued his research until his death in 1997.

Citations:
“Hans Eysenck Biography.” GoodTherapy, 7 July 2015, https://www.goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/hans-eysenck.html. Accessed 30 March 2023

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Julian Rotter was an American psychologist who is known for developing influential theories, including social learning theory and locus of control. After earning his doctorate from Indiana University, Rotter became an adviser to the United States Army during World War II. In the Army, Rotter worked as a psychologist, except for 17 weeks in officer candidate training as a tank officer. His greatest contribution to psychology was his developing influential theories, including social learning theory
and locus of control.

"Julian B. Rotter." Pearsonassessments.Com, 29 Mar. 2023, www.pearsonassessments.com/professional-assessments/products/authors/rotter-julian.html. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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McClelland, David was an American social psychologist. He is known for his work in the field of motivation and especially his theory of people's "need for achievement." Rejecting IQs and personality tests as valuable measures of a person's potential success at a task or career, he developed innovative ways of measuring psychological characteristics. his contribution to psychology was the development of a widely used scoring system for the Thematic Apperception Test.

"David McClelland." Newworldencyclopedia.Org, 25 Jun. 2022, www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/David_McClelland. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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George Miller was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of cognitive psychology and of cognitive neuroscience. George Miller's contribution to phycology was Miller helped to find a new field of cognitive neuroscience and developed Wordnet, a database of words linked by their semantic relations, which has become an important research tool in linguistics.

"George A. Miller American Psychologist." Brittannica.Com, 25 Jun. 2022, www.britannica.com/biography/George-A-Miller. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Eugene Aserinsky was a sleep researcher, Ph.D. graduate of physiology from the University of Chicago, and a medical professor at multiple universities.

Aserinsky's sleep studies closely align him with the psychoanalytic school of psychology. His findings during his studies revealed that the mind is in fact active and operating during sleep, and does not simply shut down along with the physical body. This discovery proposed new questions and theories revolving how the mind functions and the purpose of sleep.

Aserinsky is best known for his discovery of REM sleep. He discovered the REM cycle by tracking his son's eye movement while he was sleeping by using an old brain-wave machine.

Citations:
Brown, Chip. “The Stubborn Scientist Who Unraveled A Mystery of the Night.” Smithsonian Magazine, October 2003, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-stubborn-scientist-who-unraveled-a-mystery-of-the-night-91514538/. Accessed 6 March 2023.

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James, Olds was one of the most important psychologists of the twentieth century James Olds was born in Chicago on May 30, 1922, and grew up in Nyack, New York, and Washington, D.C. I think the school of psychology he fits in is behaviorism. The major contribution he had to psychology is  his discovery of the "reward" system in the brain

"James Olds | Biographical Memoirs: Volume 77." https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/9681/chapter/16. Accessed 13 Mar. 2023

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Stanley Schachter was an American social psychologist, who is perhaps best known for his development of  the two factor theory of emotion in 1962 along with Jerome E. Singer.  In 1962 the American psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer performed an experiment that suggested to them that elements of both the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories are factors in the experience of emotion. Their cognitive-physiological theory of emotion proposed that both bodily changes and a cognitive label are needed.

"Stanley Schachter American Psychologist." Britannica.Com, 29 Mar. 2023, www.britannica.com/biography/Stanley-Schachter. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Lazarus, Richard was an American psychologist who began rising to prominence in the 1960s. Lazarus proposes a multidimensional appraisal theory of emotion, where an appraisal is an evaluation of an external event. His theory of emotion can be broken down into a sequence: cognitive appraisal, physiological response, and action. His contribution to psychology was his appraisal theory of emotion along with his important work in coping.

"Reflection on Richard Lazarus' Emotion and Adaptation." Cambridge.Org, 1 Feb. 2018, www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/reflection-on-richard-lazarus-emotion-and-adaptation/F665277BCE36BE80C6760A60E6543C71. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Rosalind Cartwright was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of sleep and dreaming. Her most notable achievement was the development of the "Cognitive Model of Dreaming," which proposed that dreams are a way for the brain to process and consolidate emotional experiences and memories.

“In memoriam: Sleep and dreams pioneer Rosalind Cartwright, PhD | AASM.” American Academy of Sleep Medicine, 19 October 2022, https://aasm.org/in-memoriam-sleep-dreams-rosalind-cartwright/. Accessed 11 April 2023.

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Carroll Izard was an American psychologist who received his Ph.D. from Syracuse University in 1952. After university, he began his career at Vanderbilt University as a psychology professor where he carried out revolutionary human emotions research. From 1976 until his retirement in 2014, Izard held a position in the Department of Psychology at the University of Delaware as a psychology professor in the McKinly Lab.

Izard can be associated with the cognitivism school of psychology due to his work regarding human emotions and personality. He made significant contributions to the developmental research on emotions including the confirmation of there being universally identifiable facial expressions associated with independent emotions.

One of Carrol Izard's many contributions to the field of emotions in psychology is the proposition that there are 10 primary emotions that cannot be reduced to more basic emotions but can be mixed with one another to create other emotions, in the same sense that primary colors are combined to produce different colors. Izard also theorized that each emotion is an intra-individual process identified through distinct facial expressions and neurobiological activity.

Citations:
Manser, Ann. “In Memoriam: Carroll Izard | UDaily.” University of Delaware, 13 February 2017, https://www.udel.edu/udaily/2017/february/in-memoriam-carroll-izard/. Accessed 16 April 2023

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Torsten Nils Wiesel (born 3 June 1924) is a Swedish neurophysiologist. Wiesel was born in Uppsala, Sweden in 1924, the youngest of five children. In 1947, he began his scientific career in Carl Gustaf Bernhard's laboratory at the Karolinska Institute, where he received his medical degree in 1954. He performed multiple experiments on cats in which he sewed one of their eyes shut and monitored the response of the cat’s visual system after opening the sutured eye.
“Torsten Wiesel (1924– ) | the Embryo Project Encyclopedia.” Embryo.asu.edu, embryo.asu.edu/pages/torsten-wiesel-1924.

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Albert Bandura first graduated from the University of British Columbia with a bachelor's degree before attending the University of Iowa to gain a master's degree in psychology and a doctorate in clinical psychology. Bandura then went on to become a psychology professor at Stanford, where he would earn the title of the David Starr Jordan Professor of Social Science in Psychology.

Bandura referred to himself as a "social cognitivist" and conducted experiments that helped support/prove his theories of observational learning. Bandura researched motivations of behavior and how modeling behavior for individuals will affect how they express themselves.

Bandura developed the social learning theory which states that observation and modeling play a significant role in how and why people learn.

Citations:
“How Social Learning Theory Works | People & Culture.” UC Berkeley, https://hr.berkeley.edu/how-social-learning-theory-works. Accessed 6 March 2023.

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Donald Broadbent studied how people pay attention and notice things. His biggest accomplishment was a theory called "Filter Theory," which explains how people can only pay attention to a limited amount of information at once and have to choose what to focus on. This idea influenced other psychologists and greatly impacted the study of psychology.

“Donald Broadbent.” New World Encyclopedia, https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Donald_Broadbent. Accessed 14 April 2023.

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Elisabeth Kubler-Ross was a Swiss-born American psychiatrist who received her medical degree from the University of Zürish in 1957. During her 3 year residency in psychiatry at Manhattan State Hospital after moving to the United States, Ross realized the medical communities' blind eye towards terminally ill patients and their need for care.

Ross can be categorized in the psychoanalytic school of psychology due to her work revolving around what is going through the mind as it nears death. She wanted to help others understand what terminally ill patients felt like and to help these patients gain some sympathy.

Ross is best known for identifying the 5 stages of grief that are experienced by those who are dying: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. In order to identify and support these 5 stages, Ross analyzed data from near-death experiences and molded them into an approach from a more cognitive perspective. Ross was also one of the prominent people to establish hospice care programs and accommodations for those who are close to death.

Citations:
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Elisabeth Kübler-Ross". Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 Dec. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Elisabeth-Kubler-Ross. Accessed 17 April 2023.

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Lawrence Kohlberg attended an early college in Andover, Massachusetts before enrolling in the U.S. Merchant Marine. After serving in the Marines, Kohlberg worked on a ship owned by a Zionist military organization intended to smuggle Jewish war refugees into Palestine. However, the boat was confronted, and Kohlberg was detained in a British concentration camp in Cyprus. In 1948, Kohlberg returned to the US and completed his BA in psychology in 1 year and his Ph.D. in psychology in 1958. After holding professor roles at multiple education centers, he ended up at Harvard in 1968.

Kohlberg was considered a cognitive psychologist during a time when most psychologists were behaviorists, making him stand out amongst others in his field. His studies which focused on the cognitive perspective of moral development were groundbreaking as they were one of the first to interpret moral development from a cognitive point of view as opposed to a social behavior perspective.

Kohlberg is most widely regarded for his six-stage theory of moral development which is divided into 3 subcategories; pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. This theory focuses on the cognitive processes that occur when one is deciding whether a behavior is right or wrong. Kohlberg's work broke new ground in the field of moral development in psychology as other psychologists only examined the behavior exhibited by children when making moral decisions. Kohlberg actually analyzed what was going through the children's minds when trying to make a decision and how those thought processes create a mental design of right from wrong.

Citations:
Doorey, Marie. "Lawrence Kohlberg". Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 Jan. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lawrence-Kohlberg. Accessed 17 April 2023.

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Dr. William Dement was a revolutionary sleep researcher at Stanford University. He was a professor in the psychiatry department at Stanford, and in 1971, his Sleeps and Dreams class was first offered to students, where over 600 students signed up for the class. Dement went to college at the University of Washington and completed graduate school at the University of Chicago.

Dement can be classified in the psychoanalysis school of thought due to his speciality in unconscious research. Referred to as the "father of sleep medicine," Dement helped lay the foundations for sleep and dream research, which multiple other psychologists such as Sigmund Freud largely based their studies around.

William Dement's contributions to sleep research greatly expanded the field and helped develop the foundations for sleep studies, some of Dement's key achievements being the identification of the sleep cycle phases, discovering the physiological basis of dreams, writing the first university textbook on sleep, founding the world's first sleep disorders center, and serving as the American Sleep Disorders Association president, which he also founded.

Citations:
Spector, Rosanne. “William Dement, giant in sleep medicine, dies at 91.” Stanford Medicine, 18 June 2020, https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2020/06/william-dement-giant-in-field-of-sleep-medicine-dies-at-91.html. Accessed 8 March 2023.

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Noam Chomsky, an American linguist and philosopher, made significant contributions to the study of language and cognition. His most notable achievement was the development of the theory of "Universal Grammar," which proposes that humans have an innate ability to learn language due to a set of universal grammatical rules that are hard-wired into the brain. Chomsky's research on language and syntax also significantly impacted understanding how humans learn and use language.

McGilvray, James A. “Noam Chomsky | Biography, Theories, Books, Psychology, & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 April 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Noam-Chomsky. Accessed 11 April 2023.

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Walter Mischel was an American psychologist best known for his groundbreaking study on delayed gratification known as “the marshmallow test.” In the late 1960s Mischel began a study on delayed gratification—the ability to abstain from instant but less-desirable outcomes in favour of deferred but more-desirable outcomes. The experimenter seated preschool-age children alone at a table with a desired treat such as a marshmallow and, before exiting the room, presented them with a choice: ethier to ring a bell to call the researcher back and, upon his return, consume the single marshmallow or to wait until the researcher’s voluntary return and be rewarded with not one but two marshmallows.

"Walter Mischel American Psychologist." Brittannica.Com, 25 Jun. 2022, www.britannica.com/biography/Walter-Mischel. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Gordon Bower was an American psychologist who studied memory and learning. He developed the method of loci, a memory technique that associates items with physical locations. He explored the role of mental imagery in memory and how visualization techniques can improve recall.

Genzlinger, Neil. “Gordon Bower, Inventive Memory Researcher, Is Dead at 87 (Published 2020).” The New York Times, 19 July 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/19/science/gordon-bower-dead.html. Accessed 30 March 2023.

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was an American experimental psychologist and learning theorist, whose work focused upon the basic determinants of associative learning and habituation. He co-authored the influential Rescoral-Wagner model of Pavlovian Conditioning as well as the Standard Operating Procedures or "Sometimes Opponent Process" (SOP) theory of associative learning, the Affective Extension of SOP (AESOP) and the Replaced Elements Model (REM) of configural representation. His research involved extensive study of the conditioned eyeblink response of the rabbit, of which he was one of the initial investigators.

Biographical Sketch | Allan R. Wagner (yale.edu)

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Paul Ekman is an American psychologist who made significant contributions to the study of emotions and nonverbal communication. His most notable achievement was the development of the "Facial Action Coding System," which describes the specific facial muscle movements that correspond to different emotional states. Ekman's research on emotions and facial expressions also had a significant impact on the understanding of how emotions are expressed and recognized across cultures.

Ekman, Paul. “Paul Ekman Ph.D.” Psychology Today, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/contributors/paul-ekman-phd. Accessed 11 April 2023.

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"Gazzaniga attended the California Institute of Technology, where he received his doctorate in psychobiology in 1964-1965." Gazzaniga helped study neuroscience and contributed to the knowledge of how the hemispheres in our brains work differently. Gazzaniga researched the differences in individuals' brains which change their behavior.
“Michael Gazzaniga, PhD – FABBS.” Federation of Associations in Behavioral & Brain Sciences, https://fabbs.org/our_scientists/michael-gazzaniga-phd/. Accessed 6 March 2023.

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Robert Rescorla was an American psychologist that studied at the University of Pennsylvania. Robert Rescorla is the founder of the contingency theory and he specialized in conditioning and associative learning.  Rescorla chose to expand on the classical conditioning theory presented by Ivan Pavlov. Rescorla's greatest contribution to the field of Psychology was the Rescorla-Wagner model of associative learning.

"Who Is Robert Rescorla? What Was His Contribution to Psychology?" Study.Com, 2 Nov. 2022, study.com/learn/lesson/robert-rescorla-life-theory.html. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Martin was an American psychologist, educator, and author of self-help books. Seligman is a strong promoter within the scientific community of his theories of positive psychology and of well-being. His theory of learned helplessness is popular among scientific and clinical psychologists. A survey published in 2002 ranked Seligman as the 31st most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

Martin Seligman | Speaker | TED

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Howard Gardner is an American Psychologist who attended Harvard University for both his bachelor's degree in 1965 and his doctoral degree in developmental psychology in 1971. Gardner continues to pursue his passion for psychology by serving as the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Research Professor of Cognition and Education at Harvard Graduate School of Education. Additionally, Gardner taught neurology from 1984-2005 at the Boston University School of Medicine and was a professor at Harvard Graduate School of Education from 1968-1998.

Gardner's studies closely align him with both cognitivism and humanism due to his argument that intelligence is specific for each person and varies by an individual's strengths and weaknesses. Gardner decided to take a more humane approach to understanding the mind's abilities which ultimately led him to his theory of multiple intelligences.

Gardner is best known for his theory of multiple intelligences which suggests that human intelligence takes the form of a complex paradigm compromising around 8 intellectual abilities: logical-mathematical, musical, linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist intelligence. Gardner's theory was a groundbreaking presence in the study of personalities due to it challenging the previously believed concept of people having a single IQ represented by numbers.

Citations:
Gardner, Howard. Howard Gardner, https://www.howardgardner.com/. Accessed 16 April 2023.

Gordon, Lynn Melby. "Howard Gardner". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Jul. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Howard-Gardner. Accessed 11 April 202

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Elizabeth Loftus studies human memory. Her experiments reveal how memories can be changed by things that we are told. Facts, ideas, suggestions, and other post-event information can modify our memories. The legal field, so reliant on memories, has been a significant application of memory research. The contribution she has made to psychology is her experiments reveal how memories can be changed by things that we are told.

"Elizabeth F. Loftus." Faculty.Sites.Uci.Edu, 1 Jan. 2022, faculty.sites.uci.edu/eloftus/. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

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Daniel Goleman is an American psychologist, journalist, author, lecturer, and professor mainly focused on the topic of emotional intelligence. After attending Amherst College and transferring to the University of California at Berkeley, Goleman was offered a scholarship to Harvard University where he chose to pursue a clinical psychology degree in the Department of Social Relations. With the help of the Social Science Research Council's post-doctoral grant, Goleman was able to travel to Asia for the 2nd time to continue his study of ancient psychological methods. There, he wrote his first book, The Meditative Mind, and returned to Harvard to teach a course on the psychology behind consciousness. After 12 years of writing for the New York Times, Goleman resigned from his job to complete his second book, Emotional Intelligence, which gained him a large platform and international recognition.

Daniel Goleman can be associated with the behaviorism school of psychology since the primary focus of his research revolves around emotional intelligence and human motivation. Goleman's research supports his argument of the connection between emotional intelligence and excellence, and his books seek to help people foster their emotional intelligence in order to improve the other aspects of their life.

Daniel Goleman is best known for his groundbreaking research on emotional intelligence and the importance of nourishing it. Goleman was also a co-founder of the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning at the Yale University Child Studies Center (currently at the University of Illinois at Chicago) which seeks to help education centers incorporate emotional literacy courses.

Citations:
Daniel Goleman – Emotional Intelligence, Social Intelligence, Ecological Intelligence, https://www.danielgoleman.info/. Accessed 16 April 2023

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Robert Jeffrey Sternberg is an American psychologist known for his theories on love, intelligence, and creativity. He was born in New Jersey on December 9, 1949. Sternberg's interest in psychology began early in life. After experiencing Test Anxiety and doing poorly on an exam, he realized that the test was not an accurate measure of his actual knowledge and abilities. When he retook the same test in a different room with a group of younger students, he found that he felt more confident and scored much higher as a result. The next year, Sternberg developed his very first intelligence test which he named the Sternberg Test of Mental Ability (STOMA).

Biography of Psychologist Robert Sternberg (verywellmind.com)

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Dr. Ramachandran's major areas of research are: cognitive neuroscience, behavioral neurology - the study of cognitive and perceptual deficits in human neurological patients, neural plasticity and "phantom limbs", stroke rehabilitation, human visual perception/cognition, and visual psychophysics. His school of psychology he fits in is behaviorism and cognitivism.  The major contributions he did for psychology was researching neurological syndromes like phantom limbs, body integrity identity disorder, and the Capgras delusion.
"Vilayanur Ramachandran: Phantom Limbs and Neural Plasticity." 28 Mar. 2018, https://psychmuseum.uwgb.org/neuro/vilayanurramachandran/. Accessed 13 Mar. 2023.

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Masters and Johnson were an American research team most well known for their studies in human sexuality.  Johnson began work with Masters as a research associate in 1956–57, assisting him in the sex research that he had begun in 1954. Her engaging approach balanced his scientific background. In 1964 they established the Reproductive Biology Research Foundation in St. Louis, he becoming its director and she initially serving as a research assistant and later (1973) becoming its co-director. They were married in 1971 and divorced in 1993. Masters closed the institute in 1994. Their contribution to psychology was in the late 1950s, Masters and Johnson pioneered research into the understanding human sexual response, dysfunction, and disorders through the direct observation of anatomical and physiological sexual responses of human subjects.

"Masters and Johnson American Research Team." Brittannica.Com, 12 Aug. 2021, www.britannica.com/biography/Virginia-E-Johnson. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.
"Masters & Johnson Collection." Kinnseyinstitute.Com, 12 Aug. 2021, kinseyinstitute.org/collections/archival/masters-and-johnson.php#:~:text=In%20the%20late%201950s%2C%20Masters,sexual%20responses%20of%20human%20subjects. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.