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In class we discussed how the aftermath of WWII is what began the push for a tighter European integration, as many blamed nationalism for the war. It was also discussed how many countries blamed and feared Germany as a remaining European hegemony; especially because France and Germany had four conflicts including WWII in just 130 years. The fear of Germany and how they were treated in comparison to other countries after WWII is what I chose to do more research on. Many tie the creation of the Treaty of Versailles after WWI to be a driving factor for WWII. Germany took many land and economic losses, along with having to take almost sole blame; and pay 6.6 billion in reparations (BBC). The resentment fueled the rhetoric for the Nazi party and for Germany to seek more power and better conditions within the European system. So, to see Europe so quickly place blame solely on Germany, want to exclude them from integration and economic opportunity again seemed like an unwise repetition of history. In 1949 the Allies made the decision to dilute Germany's power by splitting the control amongst themselves; West Germany was deemed to be under American, French, and British control while East was placed under the Soviet Union. Once again, it seemed that the mishandling of Germany led to catastrophe (although on a much smaller scale) as the Soviet Union took complete control over East Germany and built the Berlin Wall in 1961, not allowing anyone to move from Eastern to Western Germany (BBC). This wall remained up, separating families for almost 30 years. People in East Germany had no semblance of democracy, or freedom of speech and there was extensive repression and surveillance. It is estimated that at least 327 people including children were killed trying to escape to West Germany (Fischer 2025). Even after the fall of the wall, European powers were hesitant and distrustful of a united Germany playing part in their integrated system.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zsrwjxs/revision/4

https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/29913833

https://www.deutschland.de/en/topic/culture/gdr-east-germany

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The German Government had agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 to make peace. This action was very unpopular in Germany. Enemies of the government used the treaty to claim that it had 'stabbed Germany in the back' by ending the war.

The terms of the Treaty were very damaging to Germany:

territory was taken from Germany - depriving it of valuable industrial and agricultural income

Article 231, the War Guilt Clause blamed Germany and her allies for starting the war - this led to feelings of humiliation and anger

Germany had to pay reparations of £6.6 billion - this ensured that the economy would not recover

Germany's armed forces were greatly reduced

The video below describes the contents of the Treaty of Versailles.

The link to the armistice and Treaty of Versailles had serious repercussions for the Weimar Government.

The Weimar Government was associated with failure in World War One since it had signed the Treaty of Versailles that had ended the war. Many nationalists believed the government had sold Germany out to its enemies by ending the war too early.

The November Criminals and the legend of the Stab in the Back were phrases used in many of Hitler's speeches.

Ideas that the Treaty was signed by anti-patriotic left wing politicians (the November Criminals), and that these same politicians were responsible for the 'stab in the back' of the army that led military defeat in 1918, discredited the Weimar Government.

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Resentment towards the Treaty of Versailles - Why the Nazis achieved power - Higher History Revision - BBC Bitesize

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The German Government had agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 to make peace. This action was very unpopular in Germany. Enemies of the government used the treaty to claim that it had 'stabbed Germany in the back' by ending the war.

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Another aspect from class that I wanted to go further into depth on is why the United Kingdom was not a part of the original six European Coal and Steel members. While it is obvious that throughout time the UK has found it important to maintain their national identity and not give into supranationalism, turning away at such large economic opportunity after a war was a choice that made me interested to know more in that decision making process. I found the article, Why did the United Kingdom not join the European Union when it started?

Which stated plainly that the supranational choice was not popular amongst the UK constituency and they wanted to maintain commonwealth relationships. More specifically I found that the 1952 Prime Minister declared his economy wouldn’t be, “handed over to an authority that is utterly undemocratic and is responsible to nobody"(Reuters). This choice subsequently led to the UK not officially joining in on integration until its joining of the EEC in 1973; and can be seen as foreshadowing to the UK’s tumultuous future and eventual departure from the EU.

https://ukandeu.ac.uk/the-facts/why-did-the-united-kingdom-not-join-the-european-union-when-it-started/

https://www.reuters.com/article/world/uk/a-long-and-winding-road-the-uk-journey-in-and-out-of-the-eu-idUSKBN1ZT2F2/

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Why did the United Kingdom not join the European Union when it started? - UK in a changing Europe

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This fact explains why the United Kingdom did not join the European Union when it started during the 1950s.

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The rise of euroscepticism, especially after a turning point like Brexit caused many European citizens to question their future in the European Union and continue on passively. Brexit opened the eyes for many Europeans, as they began to question the effectiveness, desirability of a deeper integration, and the possible consequences of a subranational organization on country specific identity and autonomy. Euroscepticism has primarily been driven by feelings of citizens wanting to prioritize national politics and institutions over supranational institutions which in turn disrupts European Union based utilitarianism.

article - https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/s41311-023-00522-z

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As highlighted in the article, the Treaty of Rome, originally signed in March of 1957, is over half a decade old today. The treaty remains an integral part of the European Union and established some key institutions and ideas, including the common market (European Council: Council of the European Union). Over the past few classes, we have discussed a few key treaties implemented over the life of the EU. The Treaty of Rome was especially interesting to me because of its economic impact on the European Union. As we have discussed in class, the goal of the treaty was to create a more unified Europe that closed country gaps and increased the standard of living for everyone. These economic policies adopted among member states pushed Europe closer to unification. As the European Investment Bank states, "the common market created the conditions for prosperity and stability for all individuals" in the European Union (European Investment Bank Group). It is interesting to see how certain policies have fostered the birth of new projects and ideologies over time.

Sources

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/documents-publications/library/library-blog/posts/treaty-of-rome-reading-references/

https://www.eib.org/en/about/eu-family/60-years-of-the-rome-treaties

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-Replaces the previous three-pillar structure, with a two-pillar structure that retains the characteristics of security, justice, and freedom seen in the third pillar.

-It removes the European Community, replacing community with Union. Essentially, the Union is the Community’s successor.

-Now, the Union is established and capable of signing agreements with nations and other organizations. Member States are only permitted to sign global agreements that agree with EU law. Furthermore, EU law takes precedence over national law.

-Post-Lisbon treaty, all laws become binding for Member States if adopted by both chambers. This insinuates that Member States have accepted a limitation of their sovereignty

For one of the first official times, the Treaty of Lisbon clarifies the powers of the Union for the first time.

-Additionally, the Treaty of Lisbon emphasizes the prioritization of citizens, highlighting the principles of democratic equality, representative democracy, and participatory democracy.

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-The fading of Soviet influence initiated the series of events that would drastically reform the EU

-The establishment of a monetary union was proposed by Jacques Delors, who maintained the position that a single currency would further facilitate economic integration, eventually trickling down towards political integration as well.

-Following back and forth discussion, this idea was solidified within the Treaty of Maastricht (The Treaty on European Union)

-Represented a pivotal point for integration post Treaty of Rome

-The Maastricht Treaty achieved in creating EU Citizenship, and strengthening the jurisdiction of the European Parliament. EU citizenship made it possible for citizens of Member States to have the opportunity to move and live in any State. Following the Maastricht Treaty, the European Parliament’s extended influence meant that member nation governments had less control.

https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/in-the-past/the-parliament-and-the-treaties/maastricht-treaty

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The Treaty on European Union was signed in Maastricht in the presence of the President of the European Parliament, Egon Klepsch. In accordance with that Treaty the Union is founded on the European Communities (first pillar), with two additional areas of cooperation (second and third pillars): the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CSFP) and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA).

Upon entry into force of the Treaty on European Union, the EEC becomes the European Community(EC).The EP's legislative and supervisory powers increase with the introduction of the codecision procedure and extension of the cooperation procedure.

Under the new Treaty the European Parliament has the right to invite the Commission to present a legislative proposal on matters which, in its view, call for a Community act to be drawn up. The entire Commission must also now be approved by the EP, which also appoints the European Ombudsman.

Signed in: Maastricht (The Netherlands) 7 February 1992

Entry into force: 1st November 1993

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Learn more about the history of the treaty of Maastricht and its purpose.

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NGEU -  possible steps towards a Fiscal Union 

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NGEU -  possible steps towards a Fiscal Union 

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Coming out of the Covid-19 pandemic, the European Union developed NextGenerationEU as a temporary recovery plan to aid in repairing the economic and social implications of the pandemic. Now in the years recovering from the pandemic, it is possible that NextGenerationEU may be a step towards a fiscal union. While NextGenerationEU is not a full creation of a fiscal union, it is a significant step towards one, where fiscal policies of various EU member states would integrate fiscal policies and regulations. In 2020, the €800 billion NGEU recovery plan was developed, introducing joint or common borrowing, and debt guarantees, and loan repayment projected to begin in 2027, which fall back in the EU budget. This plan could be seen by some as a temporary measure or if NGEU was designed as a more permanent shift towards a fiscal union.

article - https://bridgenetwork.eu/next-generation-eu-is-a-step-towards-fiscal-union/#:~:

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Next Generation EU is a Step Towards Fiscal Union - BRIDGE Network

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Stefano Micossi (Former Director General of DG Industry)