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Israel and Judah were Iron Age kingdoms of the old Near East. The area of time covered in this page is from the first mention of the name Israel in the archaeological record (1200 BCE) to the end of a independent Judean kingdom near the time of Jesus Christ.

The two kingdoms arose on the most eastern coast of the Mediterranean, the most western part of the Fertile Crescent, between the old empires of Egypt to the south, Assyria, Babylonia, later Persia to the north and east, Greece and later Rome across the sea to the west. The area is small, maybe only 100 miles north to south and 40 or 50 miles east to west.

Israel and Judah were from the Canaanite culture of the late Bronze Age, and were based on villages that formed and grew in the southern Levant highlands (today for the region between the coastal plain and the Jordan Valley) between c. 1200-1000 BCE. Israel became an important local power in the 9th and 8th centuries BCE before falling to the Assyrians. The southern kingdom, Judah, became rich inside the greater empires of the region before a revolt against Babylon led to it being destroyed early in the 6th century.

Judean exiles returned from Babylon early in the following Persian period, starting a Judahite presence in the province of Yehud, as Judah was now called. Yehud was absorbed into the subsequent Greek-ruled kingdoms which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. In the 2nd century BC, the Jews went up against Greek rule and created the Hasmonean kingdom, which became first a Roman dependency and soon went under the rule of the Roman Empire.

Late Bronze Age background (1550-1200 BCE)

Geography and human settlement

The eastern Mediterranean seaboard - the Levant - goes 400 miles north to south from the Taurus Mountains to the Sinai desert, and 70 to 100 miles east to west between the sea and the Arabian desert. The coastal area of the southern Levant, large in the south and becoming short to the north, the southernmost part has a zone of foothills, the Shephalah; like the plain this area narrows as it goes northwards, ending at Mount Carmel. East of the plain and the Shephalah is a mountainous ridge, the "hill country of Judah" in the south, the "hill country of Ephraim" north of that, then Galilee and the Lebanon mountains. To the east again lie the steep-sided valley occupied by the Jordan River, the Dead Sea, and the wadi of the Arabah, which continues down to the eastern arm of the Red Sea. Beyond the plateau is the Syrian desert, separating the Levant from Mesopotamia. To the southwest is Egypt, to the northeast Mesopotamia. "The Levant thus constitutes a narrow corridor whose geographical setting made it a constant area of contention between more powerful entities".

The central and northern part of the Levantine coast was known in Classical times as Phoenicia; the southernmost portion was known to the Egyptians as Canaan, by which they seem to have meant all their Asian possessions. In the bible Canaan can mean all of the land west of the Jordan river, or, more narrowly, the coastal strip. By Classical times the name Canaan had been dropped in favour of "Philistia", "Land of the Philistines", despite the fact that the Philistines had long since disappeared. The modern name "Palestine" is derived from this. Northeast of Canaan/Palestine was Aram, later called Syria after the Assyrians, who had likewise long since vanished.

Settlement during the Late Bronze was concentrated in the coastal plain and along major communication routes, with the central hill-country only sparsely inhabited; each city had its own ruler, constantly at odds with his neighbours and appealing to the Egyptians to adjudicate his differences. One of these Canaanite states was Jerusalem: letters from the Egyptian archives indicate that it followed the usual Late Bronze pattern of a small city with surrounding farmlands and villages; unlike most other Late Bronze city-states, there is no indication that it was destroyed at the end of the period.

Canaan and the Late Bronze collapse

Canaan in the 13th and early 12th centuries had people of various origins, united by a common socioeconomic system of city-states administered and controlled by Egypt. Egyptian power and the Canaanite city-state system collapsed. From the collapse two new communities emerged in the 12th century BCE, the Israelites in the hill country and the Philistines in the southern part of the coastal plain. The Philistines clearly represent the arrival of a considerable number of outsiders, probably from Cyprus, with their own non-indigenous culture. The Israelites are just as clearly indigenous to Canaan: to take linguistics as just one indicator, Judahite and Israelite Hebrew of the early 1st millennium BCE group with Phoenician, Ammonite, Moabite and Edomite; and within that grouping a "core Canaanite" of Israelite and Phoenician can be distinguished from a "fringe Canaanite" of Judahite, Ammonite, Moabite and Edomite.

The causes of the Bronze Age collapse - which extended throughout the eastern Mediterranean - are obscure. Drought, famine and other stresses may be behind the widespread population movements of the time. Whatever the cause, several important Canaanite cities were destroyed at the end of the Bronze Age (over a period of more than a century), and Canaanite culture was gradually absorbed into that of the Philistines, Phoenicians and Israelites.

Pre-Exilic period

Iron Age I (1200-1000 BCE)

The Merneptah stele, erected by an Egyptian pharaoh about 1200 BC, contains the first record of the name Israel: "Israel is laid waste and his seed is not." This Israel, identified as a people, were probably located in the northern part of the central highlands. As chaos spread, people went to live in the previously unsettled highlands: surveys have identified more than 300 small settlements, most of them new and the largest with a population of no more than 300, in the Palestinian highlands during Iron Age I. The villages were bigger and more numerous in the northern regions (biblical Manasseh and Ephraim), although no settlements can be described as urban. The total settled population at the beginning of the period was about 20,000, and double this number by the end. Nevertheless, while Iron Age I villages with features such as four-roomed houses, collar-rim store jars, and hewn water-cisterns are counted as Israelite when found in the highlands, it is in fact impossible to differentiate these from Canaanite sites of the same period; nor is it possible to distinguish between Hebrew and Canaanite inscriptions down to the 10th century.

In Iron Age I the highlands lack any sign of centralised authority, or of temples, shrines, or centralised worship in general (although cult-objects associated with the Canaanite god El have been found); almost the sole marker distinguishing the highland "Israelite" villages from Cannanite sites is an absence of pig bones, although whether this can be taken as an ethnic marker or is due to other factors remains a matter of dispute.

The same period saw the rise of the kingdoms of the kingdoms of Aram Damascus and Ammon to the east of the northern hill country, Moab (east of the Dead Sea), and Edom (in the Arabah south of the Dead Sea), in that order.

Iron Age II (1000-586 BCE)

An inscription of the Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I, probably identical with the biblical Shishak, record a series of campaigns apparently directed at the area immediately north of Jerusalem in the second half of the 10th century BCE. About a hundred years later, in the 9th century BCE, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III names Ahab of Israel among his enemies at the battle of Qarqar (853 BCE), while in the Mesha stele (c.830 BCE) a king of Moab celebrates his success in throwing off the oppression of the "House of Omri" (i.e. Israel). Similarly, the Tel Dan stele tells of the death of a king of Israel, probably Jehoram, at the hands of an Aramaen king about 841 BCE. Excavations at Samaria, the Israelite capital, further reinforce the impression of a powerful, centralised kingdom in the northern highlands during the 9th and 8th centuries. In the second half of the 8th century king Hoshea of Israel revolted against the Assyrians, and was crushed (c.722 BCE). Part of the population was deported, outside settlers were brought in to replace them, and Israel became an Assyrian province.

The first evidence for the existence of an organised kingdom in the southern region comes from the mid 9th century Tel Dan stele, which mentions the death of a king of the "House of David" alongside the king of Israel; the contemporary Mesha stele may also mention the House of David, although the reconstruction which allows this reading is disputed. It is generally assumed that this "House of David" is identical with the biblical dynasty, but the archaeological evidence from surface surveys indicates that during the 10th and 9th centuries Jerusalem was only one of the four large villages in the area, with no sign of primacy over its neighbours. It was only in the last part of the 8th century that Jerusalem experienced a period of rapid growth, achieving a population far greater than at any time before and clear primacy over the surrounding towns. The older scholarly reconstruction of events is that this was due to an influx of refugees from Israel following its conquest by the Assyrians (c.722 BC), but the newer view is that it reflects a cooperative effort between Assyria and the kings of Jerusalem to establish Judah as a pro-Assyrian vassal state exercising control over the valuable olive industry. The sudden collapse of the Assyrian power in the last half of the 7th century led to an unsuccessful bid for independence under king Josiah, followed by the destruction of Jerusalem by Assyria's successor, the neo-Babylonian empire (587/586 BCE).

Exilic and Post-Exilic period

Babylonian and Persian periods (586-333 BCE)

In 586 BCE, the Babylonians, under king Nebuchadnezzar II captured Jerusalem, destroyed the Temple of Solomon, ended the Davidic kingship, and carried the people into captivity. Only the poorest were left behind in Judah, now the Babylonian province of Yehud with its capital at Mizpah in the former territory of Benjamin, north of Jerusalem. A few years later, again according to the bible, the governor of Yehud was murdered by rivals, triggering another exodus of refugees, this time to Egypt. Thus by about 580 the people of Judah were to be found in three separate locations, the elite in Babylon (where, incidentally, they appear to have been well treated), a large community in Egypt, and a remnant in Judah. The Exile ended when Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon (traditionally 538 BCE). The Persians reconstituted Judah/Yehud as a province ("Yehud medinata") within the satrapy "Beyond the River", and over the following century some of the exiles returned to Jerusalem. There they eventually rebuilt the Temple (traditionally 516/515 BCE), but for over a century the administrative capital remained at Mizpah. Samaria, meanwhile, continued as the province of Semarina within the same satrapy as Yehud.

The Persian Period

In 539 BCE the Persians conquered Babylon and in 537 BCE, inaugurated the Persian period of Jewish history. In 520 BCE Cyrus the Great allowed Jews to return to Judea and rebuild the Temple (completed 515 BCE). He appointed Zerubbabel (the grandson of the second to last Judean king, Jehoiachin) governor, but did not allow the restoration of the kingdom. The influence of Zoroastrianism on monotheism, Judaism, as well as Christianity are still the subject of academic debate.

Without a powerful king, the Temple became more powerful, and priests became the dominant authority. However, the Second Temple had been constructed under a foreign power, and there were lingering questions about its legitimacy. This provided the condition for various sects to develop within Judaism over the coming centuries, each of which claimed to represent "Judaism". Most of these typically discouraged social intercourse, especially marriage, with members of other sects.

The end of the Babylonian Exile saw not only the construction of the Second Temple, but, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, the final version ion of the Torah as well. Although the priests controlled the monarchy and the Temple, scribes and sages (who later became the ) monopolized the study of the Torah, which (starting from the time of Ezra) was read publicly on market-days. These sages developed and maintained an oral tradition alongside of the Holy Writ, and identified with the prophets. According to Geza Vermes, such scribes were often addressed using a basic term of respect, "lord."

Hellenistic and Roman periods (333 BCE-70 CE)

The Hellenistic period began in 332 BCE when Alexander the Great conquered Persia. Upon his death in 323 BCE, his empire was divided among his generals. At first, Judea was ruled by the Egyptian-Hellenic Ptolemies, but in 198 BCE, the Syrian-Hellenic Seleucid Empire, under Antiochus III, seized control over Judea.

The Hellenistic Period saw the canonization of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), according to one theory, and the emergence of extra-Biblical sacred traditions. The earliest evidence of a Jewish mysticism tradition surrounds the book of Ezekiel, written during the Babylonian Exile. Virtually all known mystical texts, however, were written at the end of the Second Temple period. Some scholars think the esoteric traditions of the Kabbalah(Jewish Mysticism, were influenced by Persian beliefs, Platonic philosophy and Gnosticism.

2 Esdras 14:45-46, which was written in the second century CE, declares: "Make public the twenty-four books that you wrote first, and let the worthy and the unworthy read them; but keep the seventy that were written last, in order to give them to the wise among your people." This is the first known reference to the canonized Hebrew Bible, and the seventy non-canonical texts may have been mystical; the Talmud suggests other mystical traditions which may have their roots in Second Temple Judaism.

The Near East was cosmopolitan, especially during the Hellenistic period. Several languages were used, and the matter of the lingua franca is still subject of some debate. The Jews almost certainly spoke Aramaic among themselves. Greek was often used throughout the entire eastern portion of the Mediterranean. Judaism was rapidly changing, reacting and adapting to a larger political, cultural, and intellectual world, and in turn drawing the interests of non-Jews. Historian Shaye Cohen observed:

All the Judaisms of the Hellenistic period, of both the diaspora and the land of Israel, were Hellenized, that is, were integral parts of the culture of the ancient world. Some varieties of Judaism were more hellenized than others, but none was an island unto itself. It is a mistake to imagine that the land of Palestine preserved a "pure" form of Judaism and that the diaspora was the home of adulterated or diluted forms of Judaism. The term "Hellenistic Judaism" makes sense, then, only as a chronological indicator for the period from Alexander the Great to the Macabees or perhaps to the Roman conquests of the first century BCE. As a descriptive term for a certain type of Judaism, however, it is meaningless because all the Judaisms of the Hellenistic period were "Hellenistic." (Cohen 1987: 37)

Cultural Struggles with Hellenism

Many Jews lived in the Diaspora, and the Judean provinces of Judea, Samaria, and the Galilee were populated by many Gentiles (who often showed an interest in Judaism). Jews had to live with the values of Hellenism and Hellenistic philosophy, which were often directly at odds with their own values and traditions. Broadly, Hellenistic culture saw itself as a civilizor, bringing civilized values and ways to peoples they thought of as insular or either backwards or degenerate.

For example, Greek-style bath houses were built in sight of the Temple in Jerusalem, for instance, and even in that city the gymnasium became a center of social, athletic, and intellectual life. Many Jews, including some of the more aristocratic priests, embraced these institutions, although Jews who did so were often looked down upon due to their circumcision, which Jews saw as the mark of their covenant with God, but which Hellenistic culture viewed as an aesthetic defacement of the body. Consequently, some Jews began to abandon the practice of circumcision (and thus their covenant with God), while others bridled at Greek domination.

At the same time that Jews were confronting the cultural differences at their door, they had to confront a paradox in their own tradition: their Torah laws applied only to them, and to proselytes, but their God, they believed, was the one and only God of all. This situation led to new interpretations of the Torah, some of which were influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile interest in Judaism. It was in this period that many concepts from early Greek philosophy entered or influenced Judaism, as well as debates and sects within the religion and culture of the time.

In 331 BCE Alexander the Great took over the Persian Empire. Upon his death in 323 BCE his empire crumbled, and the province of Yehud became part of the kingdom of Egypt, ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty. Ptolemaic rule was mild: Alexandria became the largest Jewish city in the world, and Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt (281-246 BCE) promoted Jewish culture, sponsoring the Septuagint translation of the Torah. This period also saw the beginning of the Pharisees and other Jewish Second Temple parties such as the Sadducees and Essenes. But in the early 2nd century BCE Yehud fell to the Seleucid Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes (174-163 BCE), who, in contrast to the tolerance shown by the Ptolemids, attempted complete Hellenization of the Jews. His desecration of the Temple sparked a national rebellion, which ended in the expulsion of the Syrians and the re-consecration of the Temple under the Maccabees

The kingdom established by the Maccabees was a conscious attempt to revive the Judah described in the bible: a Jewish monarchy ruled from Jerusalem and stretching over all the territories once ruled by David and Solomon. In order to carry out this project the Hasmonean kings conquered (and forcibly converted to Judaism) the one-time Moabites, Edomites and Ammonites, as well as the lost kingdom of Israel.

Generally, the Jews accepted foreign rule when they were only required to pay tribute, and otherwise allowed to govern themselves internally. Nevertheless, Jews were divided between those favoring hellenization and those opposing it, and were divided over allegiance to the Ptolemies or Seleucids. When the High Priest Simon II died in 175 BCE, conflict broke out between supporters of his son Onias III (who opposed hellenization, and favored the Ptolemies) and his son Jason (who favored hellenization, and favored the Seleucids). A period of political intrigue followed, with priests such as Menelaus bribing the king to win the High Priesthood, and accusations of murder of competing contenders for the title. The result was a brief civil war.

Huge numbers of Jews flocked to Jason's side, and in 167 BCE the Seleucid king Antiochus IV invaded Judea, entered the Temple, and stripped it of money and ceremonial objects. Jason fled to Egypt, and Antiochus imposed a program of forced hellenization, requiring Jews to abandon their own laws and customs under threat of slaughter. At this point Mattathias and his five sons, John, Eleazar, Simon, Jonathan, and Judah Maccabee, priests of the Hasmon family living in the rural village of Modein (pronounced "Mo-Ah-Dein"), assumed leadership of a bloody and ultimately successful revolt against the Seleucids.

Judah liberated Jerusalem in 165 BCE and restored the Temple. Fighting continued, and Judah and his brother Jonathan were killed. In 141 BCE an assembly of priests and others affirmed Simon as high priest and leader, in effect establishing the Hasmonean dynasty. When Simon was killed in 135 BCE, his son (and Judah's nephew) John Hyrcanus took his place as high priest and king.

The Hasmonean kingdom

After defeating the Seleucid forces, John Hyrcanus established a new monarchy in the form of the priestly Hasmonean dynasty in 152 BCE - thus making priests as political as well as religious authorities. Although the Hasmoneans were popularly seen as heroes and leaders for resisting the Seleucids, some regarded their reign as lacking the religious legitimacy conferred by descent from the Davidic dynasty of the First Temple Era.

Sadducees, Essenes, and Pharisees

The rift between the priests and the sages grew during the Hellenistic period, when the Jews faced new political and cultural struggles. Around this time the Sadducee party emerged as the party of the priests and allied elites (the name Sadducee comes from Zadok, the high priest of the first Temple).

The Essenes were another early mystical-religious movement, who are believed to have rejected either the Seleucid appointed high priests, or the Hasmonean high priests, as wrong. But they soon rejected the Second Temple, arguing that the Essene community was itself the new Temple, and that obedience to the law represented a new form of sacrifice.

Although their lack of concern for the Second Temple alienated the Essenes from the great mass of Jews, their notion that the sacred could exist outside of the Temple was shared by another group, the Pharisees ("separatists"), based within the community of scribes and sages. The meaning of the name is unclear, though.

During the Hasmonean period, the Sadducees and Pharisees functioned primarily as political parties (the Essenes not being as politically oriented). The political differences between the Sadducees and Pharisees became evident when Pharisees demanded that the Hasmonean king Alexander Jannai choose between being king and being High Priest in the traditional manner. This demand led to a brief civil war that ended with a bloody repression of the Pharisees, although at his deathbed the king called for a reconciliation between the two parties. Alexander was succeeded by his widow, whose brother was a leading Pharisee. Upon her death her elder son, Hyrcanus II, sought Pharisee support, and her younger son, Aristobulus, sought the support of the Sadducees.

In 64 BCE the Roman general Pompey took over Jerusalem and made the Jewish kingdom a client of Rome. In 57-55 BCE Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, split it into Galilee, Samaria & Judea, with 5 district Sanhedrin/Synedrion (councils of law). In 40-39 BCE Herod the Great was appointed King of the Jews by the Roman Senate, but in 6 CE his successor, Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, was deposed by the emperor Augustus and his territories annexed as Iudaea Province under direct Roman administration: this marked the end of Judah as an even theoretically independent kingdom.

Israel and Judah inherited the religion of late first-millennium Canaan, and Canaanite religion in turn had its roots in the religion of second-millennium Ugarit. In the 2nd millennium, polytheism was expressed through the concepts of the divine council and the divine family.

Other pages

Images for kids

The Canaanite god Ba'al, 14th-12th century BCE ( Louvre museum, Paris)

The Merneptah stele. While alternative translations exist, the majority of biblical archeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as "Israel", representing the first instance of the name Israel in the historical record.

Reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate of Babylon

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History of ancient Israel and Judah Facts for Kids

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Israel and Judah were Iron Age kingdoms of the old Near East. The area of time covered in this page is from the first mention of the name Israel in the archaeological record (1200 BCE) to the end of a independent Judean kingdom near the time of Jesus Christ.

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The history of Mesopotamia tells the story of this ancient land from the very first humans living there, all the way up to later times. We learn about this history from things found during archaeological digs and, after writing was invented around 4,000 BC, from many old documents.

At first, only parts of northern Mesopotamia were settled. But later, people moved into the southern areas. Mesopotamia was home to many of the world's oldest great civilizations. Because of this, it's often called a cradle of civilization, meaning it's where many important human developments began.

What is Mesopotamia?

Over time, the region of Mesopotamia grew to include not just Iraq, but also parts of modern-day Iran, Syria, and Turkey. Sometimes, the nearby dry plains to the west of the Euphrates and the western Zagros Mountains were also included.

Historians usually divide Mesopotamia into two parts:

Upper or Northern Mesopotamia: This is the area between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, from where they start down to the city of Baghdad.

Lower or Southern Mesopotamia: This is the area from Baghdad down to the Persian Gulf.

The term Mesopotamia usually refers to the region's history until the Arab Muslim conquests in the 600s AD. After that, the region was known by different names like Syria, Jezirah, and Iraq.

How We Know the Dates

Historians and archaeologists use two main ways to figure out when things happened:

Relative chronology: This tells us the order of events, like which period came before another. Archaeologists find this by digging carefully and seeing which layers of dirt are on top (newer) and which are below (older).

Absolute chronology: This tells us the exact age in years. Methods like radiocarbon dating help date old objects. Also, ancient written records sometimes mention specific years or dates.

Ancient Times

Early Farmers and Villages

In the early Neolithic period, people in Mesopotamia lived in the hilly areas near the Taurus and Zagros Mountains, and along the upper parts of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys.

Around 10,000 to 8,700 BC, people started to practice agriculture, meaning they began farming. The first signs of taming animals appeared around 9,000 BC. Important sites like Abu Hureyra show this change.

One incredible early site is Göbekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey. It has the oldest known large stone sculptures and circular buildings, dating back to this time. Experts believe these were built by many hunter-gatherers working together.

Copper Age Cultures

Halaf Culture (Northwest)

The Halaf culture (around 6100-5100 BC) is known for its beautiful pottery. This pottery was decorated with colorful, abstract patterns. People also made clay figures, often painted with lines, which might have been used in fertility rituals. Clay was a very important material. They traded their carefully made and dyed pots, especially jugs and bowls.

Hassuna Culture (North)

The Hassuna culture existed in northern Mesopotamia around the early 6th millennium BC. It is named after the site of Tell Hassuna in Iraq.

Samarra Culture (Central)

The Samarra culture was a Copper Age culture in central Mesopotamia, roughly from 5500-4800 BC. It existed at the same time as parts of the Hassuna and early Ubaid cultures.

Ubaid Culture (South)

The Ubaid period (around 6500-3800 BC) is a very early time in Mesopotamia's history. It's named after Tell al-'Ubaid in southern Mesopotamia, where important discoveries were made.

In the south, the Ubaid period was very long. It ended around 3800 BC, when the Uruk period began.

Ubaid Culture Spreads North

In northern Mesopotamia, the Ubaid period was shorter, from about 5300 to 4300 BC. It followed the Halaf period. Experts believe that the Halaf people adopted the Ubaid culture, rather than being replaced by invaders.

The Uruk Period: Rise of Cities

The Uruk period is named after the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk. This was a very important time because it saw the first true cities appear in Mesopotamia.

During the Uruk period (4th millennium BC), the Sumerian civilization really took shape. This period also saw the gradual invention of cuneiform script, one of the earliest forms of writing. This is why it's sometimes called the "Protoliterate period."

Third Millennium BC

Jemdet Nasr Period

The Jemdet Nasr period (3100-2900 BC) is known for its unique painted pottery. The cuneiform script that started in the Uruk period became even better during this time. While we can't be totally sure, the language written on these tablets was likely Sumerian. These texts were mostly about managing things, like how much food was given out or lists of animals.

Cities in this period were very organized, often around a main building that controlled many parts of society. The economy relied on local farming and raising sheep and goats. The fact that the Jemdet Nasr culture was so similar across a large area of southern Mesopotamia suggests that cities traded and communicated a lot.

Early Dynastic Period: City-States Rule

The Early Dynastic period (2900-2350 BC) was a time when the Sumerians were well established in Mesopotamia. We don't know exactly where the Sumerians came from because their language, Sumerian, is unique and not related to any other known language. Their myths talk a lot about Mesopotamia, suggesting they had been there for a very long time.

By the 3rd millennium BC, these city-states had grown into complex societies. They used advanced irrigation to produce lots of food. Rulers started huge building projects, and political systems became more advanced. Throughout this millennium, different city-states like Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Lagash fought for power. Nippur and Girsu were important religious centers. This was also the time of Gilgamesh, a legendary king of Uruk, who is the subject of the famous Epic of Gilgamesh. By 2600 BC, the early writing system had become the clearer cuneiform script.

It's hard to know the exact timeline for this period because our understanding of the texts and artifacts is still developing. Also, there were so many city-states, each with its own history. The Sumerian King List used to be seen as a key historical source, but now experts think it's not always accurate for political history.

The Akkadian language slowly replaced Sumerian as the main spoken language around 2000 BC. However, Sumerian continued to be used for religious, ceremonial, and scientific purposes in Mesopotamia for a very long time.

Akkadian Empire: The First Great Empire

The Akkadian Empire (2350-2170 BC) was founded by Sargon around 2334 BC. He became ruler of Akkad in northern Mesopotamia and went on to conquer a huge area, from the Persian Gulf all the way into modern-day Syria. The Akkadians were a Semitic people. The Akkadian language became the common language, but Sumerian was still used for writing.

The Akkadians improved the Sumerian irrigation system. They built large weirs and dams to create reservoirs and canals, moving water over long distances. The empire reached its peak under Naram-Sin, who was the first ruler to claim he was a god.

Ur III Period: Sumerian Revival

The Guti were eventually defeated by Utu-hengal of Uruk. Power then shifted to the city-state of Ur, when Ur-Nammu founded the Ur III Empire (2112-2004 BC). His son, Shulgi, brought state control over industries to a level never seen before. Shulgi might have created the Code of Ur-Nammu, one of the earliest known law codes, even older than the famous Code of Hammurabi.

Second Millennium BC

Early Assyrian Kingdom

Around 1975 BC, Puzur-Ashur I started a new ruling family. His successors built temples to the gods Ashur, Adad, and Ishtar. Ilushuma (1945-1906 BC) was a powerful king who raided southern Mesopotamia and set up trading posts in Asia Minor. This rivalry between Assyria and Babylonia would continue for centuries.

Babylon Rises and Falls

The next two centuries (the Isin-Larsa period) saw southern Mesopotamia dominated by the Amorite cities of Isin and Larsa, who fought for control. In the north, Assyria grew stronger.

After Hammurabi's death, his empire quickly fell apart, and Babylon became a small state again. The Amorite rule in Babylon ended in 1595 BC when the Hittites conquered it. After that, the Kassites took control.

Unlike southern Mesopotamia, the native kings of Assyria kept the Amorites out during the 20th and 19th centuries BC. However, in 1813 BC, an Amorite king named Shamshi-Adad I took the throne of Assyria. He created a regional empire, expanding Assyrian influence. His son continued this, but later Assyrian kings became vassals of Hammurabi. Eventually, a native Assyrian leader overthrew the Amorites, and Assyria became strong again.

Middle Assyrian Empire

The Middle Assyrian period began around 1720 BC when the Amorites were driven out of Assyria. Assyria remained strong and stable. They made peace with the Kassite rulers of Babylonia and were safe from other threats.

However, the Mitanni kingdom dominated Assyria from the mid-15th to early 14th centuries BC. This ended when Ashur-uballit I (1365-1330 BC) completely defeated the Mitanni Empire. He founded a powerful Assyrian Empire that controlled Mesopotamia and much of the ancient Near East. Assyrian armies campaigned from the Mediterranean Sea to the Caspian Sea and from the Caucasus Mountains to Arabia. This empire lasted until 1076 BC. During this time, Assyria became a major power, even challenging Egypt.

Kassite Rulers of Babylon

The Kassites took over Babylon after the Hittites attacked it (around 1650-1155 BC). They ruled Babylon for over four centuries, making them the longest-lasting dynasty there. We don't have many records from this period, so it's a bit mysterious. The Kassites' language is also a mystery, as it's not related to any other known language.

Babylonia remained independent but was not a major power. It mostly stayed out of the big wars fought over the Levant between Egypt, the Hittite Empire, and Mitanni. However, the Kassites did fight their long-time rivals, the Elamites, to the east. Towards the end of their rule, Babylonia was often controlled by Assyria and Elam. Finally, the Elamites conquered Babylon, ending the Kassite period.

Hurrians and Hittites

The Hurrians were a people who settled in northwestern Mesopotamia and southeastern Anatolia around 1600 BC. By 1450 BC, they had built a medium-sized empire under a ruling class called the Mitanni. They became a threat to the Pharaoh in Egypt until Assyria defeated them. The Hurrian language is related to the later Urartian.

By 1300 BC, the Hurrians' power was broken by the Assyrians and Hittites. The Hittites were an Indo-European people who controlled most of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) from their capital, Hattusa. The Hittites fought with the Assyrians, losing some land. They lasted until the Phrygians conquered their homelands. The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I stopped the Phrygians from moving further south into Mesopotamia. The Hittites then broke into smaller states, which lasted for many more centuries.

Bronze Age Collapse

Mesopotamia was not alone in this period of mystery. The Hittite Empire fell, and there are very few records from Egypt and Elam. This was a time of invasions and great change across the entire Near East, North Africa, and parts of Europe.

First Millennium BC

Neo-Assyrian Empire: The Biggest Empire Yet

At its peak, Assyria conquered many lands, including Egypt, Babylonia, Elam, Media, Persia, Urartu, Phoenicia, Syria, Israel, and Judah. Assyrian armies campaigned from the Mediterranean Sea to the Caspian Sea and from the Caucasus Mountains to Arabia. They also defeated or received tribute from many other groups.

Neo-Babylonian Empire: Babylon's Last Glory

The Neo-Babylonian Empire began in 620 BC and ended in 539 BC. For the three centuries before this, Babylonia had been ruled by their northern neighbors, Assyria. The Assyrians had kept Babylonia loyal, sometimes by giving them special rights, and sometimes by force.

But after the last strong Assyrian ruler, Ashurbanipal, died in 627 BC, Babylonia rebelled under Nabopolassar, a Chaldean leader. Nabopolassar allied with King Cyaxares of the Medes, and with help from the Scythians and Cimmerians, they attacked and destroyed the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, in 612 BC. Assyria fell by 605 BC, and Babylon became the center of a great empire once again, for the first time since Hammurabi.

Later Empires and New Religions

After Ashurbanipal's death, the Assyrian empire fell into civil wars, allowing its former subjects to become free. The Medes and Babylonians then ruled Assyria. Both Babylon and Media later fell under Persian rule in the 6th century BC, led by Cyrus the Great.

For two centuries under Persian rule, both Assyria and Babylonia thrived. Achaemenid Assyria became a major source of soldiers and food for the empire. Mesopotamian Aramaic remained the common language.

Mesopotamia was conquered by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. It remained under Hellenistic (Greek) rule for another two centuries, with Seleucia as its capital. In the 1st century BC, Mesopotamia was often in conflict as the Greek Seleucid Empire weakened.

The Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Mesopotamia finally fell to the Rashidun army in the 630s. After the Arab- Islamic conquests in the mid-7th century AD, many Arabs and later Turkic people moved into Mesopotamia. The city of Assur was still inhabited until the 14th century, and Assyrians might have been the majority in northern Mesopotamia until the Middle Ages. Today, Assyrians still follow Eastern Rite Christianity, and Mandaeans keep their ancient religion and speak Mesopotamian Aramaic. People from these groups still often use traditional Mesopotamian names.

Classical Antiquity

Median and Babylonian Assyria (605 to 549 BC)

Persian Babylonia

Achaemenid Assyria (6th to 4th centuries BC)

Seleucid Mesopotamia (4th to 2nd centuries BC)

Parthian Asuristan (Assyria) (2nd century BC to 3rd century AD)

Osroene (2nd century BC to 3rd century AD)

Adiabene (1st to 2nd centuries AD)

Roman Mesopotamia (2nd to 7th centuries AD), Roman Assyria (2nd century AD)

Late Antiquity

In Spanish: Historia de Mesopotamia para niños

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Ancient Mesopotamia Facts for Kids - History for Kids

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Ancient Mesopotamia is a region in southwest Asia where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers are and it supported one of the first human civilisations.

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Ancient Mesopotamia for Kids - Free Interactive Games and Activities - Mesopotamia for Kids

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For Kids and Teachers - Thousands of Free Games, Activities, Essays, Reports, Powerpoints, and More

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Kids learn about the history of Ancient Mesopotamia, the cradle of civilization between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Educational articles for teachers, students, and schools including religion, art, daily life, people and kings, Sumer, Babylon, Assyria, Persia, city-states, science, and more.

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Facts about Ancient Greece for kids | National Geographic Kids

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Join us here at National Geographic Kids as we travel thousands of years back in time to discover ten fascinating facts about Ancient Greece…

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Tens of thousands of Romans take their seats in an enormous stadium made of stone and concrete. It's the year 80, and these people are entering the newly built Colosseum for the first time. Men wearing togas and women in long dresses called stolas will spend the next hundred days watching gladiator games and wild animal fights to celebrate the opening of this amphitheater.

These ancient people were living in the center of a vast empire that spanned across Europe, northern Africa, and parts of the Middle East. Lasting over a thousand years, the ancient Roman civilization contributed to modern languages, government, architecture, and more.

History of ancient Rome

Around the ninth or tenth century B.C., Rome was just a small town on the Tiber River in what's now central Italy. (One myth says that the town was founded by two brothers-Romulus and Remus-who were raised by a wolf.) For about 500 years, the area was ruled by a series of kings as it grew in strength and power.

But around the year 509 B.C., the last king was overthrown, and Rome became a republic. That meant that some citizens could vote for their leaders and other important matters. Only male Roman citizens could cast votes; women and enslaved people-often brought back as prisoners from military battles-could not.

Elected officials included two consuls who acted sort of like today's U.S. presidents and kept each other from taking too much power. Both consuls worked with senators, who advised the consuls and helped create laws. Senators were appointed by other officials and could hold their positions for life.

The Roman army fought many wars during this period, first conquering all of what's now Italy. In 146 B.C., they destroyed the city of Carthage (in modern-day Tunisia, in northern Africa), which was Rome's greatest rival for trade in the western Mediterranean Sea. Next they conquered Greece.

For 500 years, the republic system mostly worked. But then a series of civil wars divided the people. In 59 B.C., Gaius Julius Caesar, a politician and military general, used the chaos to take power. Serving as consul, Caesar made new laws that benefitted his troops and other regular citizens. Then he conquered what's now France and invaded Britain.

Even though his troops and many Roman citizens supported him, the Senate worried he was too powerful and wanted him gone. Knowing this, Caesar marched his loyal army into Rome. It was an illegal act that started a civil war, which Caesar would eventually win.

At first, he was named dictator for 10 years. (Before that, a dictator served during times of emergencies for only six months.) He canceled people's debts and granted Roman citizenship to people outside of Italy so they could vote. Caesar also traveled to Egypt, making an alliance with the pharaoh Cleopatra.

In 44 B.C., Caesar named himself dictator for life. Fearing he was becoming a king, a group of senators killed him on the floor of the Senate. Caesar was gone, but his supporters chased down the assassins. His heir and nephew, Octavian, and general Mark Anthony battled for power.

Octavian eventually won and renamed himself Augustus Caesar. (The family name, Caesar, would become a title that future emperors would use to connect themselves back to Gaius Julius Caesar.) He convinced the Senate to give him absolute power and served successfully for 45 years. After his death, he was declared a god.

For the rest of its existence, Rome was ruled by emperors who were not elected-they reigned for life. The Senate was still part of the government, but it had very little power. Some emperors, like Claudius, were good at their jobs; others, like Nero and Caligula, were so cruel that even their guards turned against them.

By A.D. 117, the Roman Empire included what's now France, Spain, Greece, Egypt, Turkey, parts of northern Africa, England, Romania, and more. At one point, one out of every four people in the world lived under Rome's control.

But emperors and the Senate found this vast empire difficult to rule from the city of Rome. In the year 285, it was split into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire. Known as the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire was ruled from the city of Constantinople, now the modern-day city of Istanbul in Turkey.

The Byzantine Empire would last for almost another thousand years, but the Western Empire-Rome-began to fall apart. Civil wars, plagues, money troubles, and invasions from other groups made the empire unstable. In the year 476, a Germanic king overthrew Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor.

Life in ancient Rome

Most people in the city of Rome lived in crowded apartment buildings called insulae that were five to seven stories high. Wealthier Romans lived in houses called domus that had a dining room and an atrium-an open-air courtyard that often had a pool at the center. Some Romans even had vacation homes in Pompeii and Herculaneum, two Roman cities that were destroyed when Mount Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79.

Rich or poor, Romans gathered to relax, socialize, and clean themselves at Roman baths. Like modern spas, these structures had exercise rooms, swimming pools, saunas, hot and cold plunge pools, and massage spaces. The people also gathered to watch plays, chariot races, and gladiator battles.

Roman citizens enjoyed relaxing, but enslaved people in ancient Rome had a much more difficult life. Many worked in fields, mines, and on ships. Others, like educated Greeks who tutored wealthy children, were forced to work in rich people's homes. However, some enslaved people were able to buy or earn their freedom and eventually become Roman citizens.

Roman women sometimes worked as midwives-helping to deliver babies-or became priestesses. But in Roman society, women's main role was to look after the home and family. Although Romans could easily get divorced, children legally belonged to the father (or a male relative if he was no longer living).

Romans believed in many gods, including the sky god Jupiter; Mars, a god who protected Romans in war; and Vesta, the goddess of the home. People would worship these gods and goddesses both at public temples and in their homes.

Why ancient Rome still matters

Today, the city of Rome is the capital of Italy, with around three million people. Visitors can still see many ancient Roman ruins, from the Colosseum to the Roman Forum, where much of ancient Roman politics took place.

But beyond the crumbling buildings, Rome's impact is seen all over the world today, from huge sports stadiums inspired by the Colosseum to the way that we vote for politicians. The republic's system of checks and balances on power even inspired the founders of the United States government.

If you drive in Europe or the Middle East today, you might be on a route created by the ancient Romans. Those engineers built a system of 50,000 miles of roads that connected the empire, allowing troops to easily conquer new land and traders to travel and bring back wealth. (It's where we get the saying, "All roads lead to Rome.")

You can also thank Roman engineers for perfecting a system for getting running water. They built aqueducts, which were long channels that delivered fresh water from up to 57 miles away for people's baths, fountains, and even toilets. (Some ancient aqueducts still provide water to modern-day Rome!)

Julius Caesar even gave the world its 365-day calendar with an extra day every fourth year, or leap year. The month of July is named after him, and August is named after his successor, Augustus.

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Find out why this ancient civilization is still important more than 2,000 years after its fall.

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Ready for a journey back in time? Here at Nat Geo Kids, we're about to get the lowdown on this amazing civilisation with our fab facts about the Romans!
Article continues below...

Facts about the Romans

1) Rome was founded in 753BC by its first king, Romulus. It grew into a rich and powerful city during the next few hundred years.

2) By AD 117 the Roman Empire included the whole of Italy, all the lands around the Mediterranean and much of Europe, including England, Wales and parts of Scotland.

Did you know that we have a FREE downloadable Romans primary resource? Great for teachers, homeschoolers and parents alike!

3) Roman legend says that Romulus had a twin brother called Remus. As babies they were abandoned in the area which later became Rome. A she-wolf found and raised them, but when they grew up, Romulus fought and killed Remus and became the first ruler of Rome!

4) The Romans built such a huge empire and conquered new lands, thanks to their strong army. The Roman army could march up to 40km a day!

5) During battle, a Roman soldier or 'legionary' first hurled his spear at the enemy, then he fought him with his sword. To protect himself, he carried a wooden shield and wore a metal helmet and armour.

6) The Romans didn't spend all their time fighting - they were amazing architects and engineers too! They built roads and walls - things we now take for granted.

7) To bring water to their cities, the clever Romans built aqueducts - a system of channels and bridges - to transport water for public baths and toilets!

8) The Romans liked to enjoy their food, often lying down on a couch while eating with their hands. They occasionally used a spoon, but they would never use a knife and fork. Rich Romans liked to eat exotic food, such as stork, roast parrot and even flamingo!

9) The Romans believed in gods and goddesses who ruled over different areas of life. For example, Neptune was the god of the ocean, and they prayed to him to protect them at sea. Temples were built to honour the gods, and people would visit them with offerings.

10) One of the most famous buildings left by the Ancient Romans is the Colosseum - a huge ampitheatre in the centre of Rome. This is where members of the public would come to watch sporting events and games, including battles between Roman gladiators!

11) Tunics - two pieces of woollen fabric sewn together at the sides and shoulders, with openings for your arms and head - were the most common clothes in Rome. Some Romans also wore togas - a kind of woollen shawl - to show how wealthy they were.

Love learning about Rome? Check out even more amazing facts about Italy, here!

Photos: Getty Images UK

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10 facts about the Ancient Romans | National Geographic Kids

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Join us here at Nat Geo Kids as we check out 10 top facts about the Romans! Discover when Rome was founded, what the Romans built, what they wore & more...

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Ancient Egypt | Ancient History For Kids

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Ancient Egypt was one of the first four areas of early civilization. Ruled by pharaohs who were thought of as living gods, this is why people built some of the most amazing piece of architecture such as the Pyramids of Giza and the Valley of Kings.

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East Asia Geography

East Asia is home to long rivers, high plateaus, dry deserts, and rugged mountains. East Asia is similar to South Asia because rugged mountains and hazardous deserts create a deadly barrier to foreigners. For thousands of years, East Asian people were isolated from the rest of the world-this allowed them to develop their culture in a very unique way without any interference from outsiders. East Asia is also farther away from other cultural centers. During ancient times, people didn't travel like people do today.

Mountains dominate East Asia's western landscape. The Himalaya Mountains are the southern border between China and India. At 29,029 feet, the Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world. The Plateau of Tibet is on the Chinese side of the Himalaya Mountains. The Himalaya Mountains and the Plateau of Tibet were formed by the slow crash of the Indian subcontinent into the Asian continent. Another Mountain range in western China is the Tian Shan. The name Tian Shan means "heavenly mountains". They get their name from the beautiful landscapes in this area. The Tian Shan's highest point is 24,406 feet.

East Asia also has vast deserts. Most of western East Asia has an Arid Climate. The Gobi Desert is found along the border between Mongolia and China. The Gobi is the 5th largest desert in the world and is also the coldest. It is common to see frost or even snow on the sand and gravel dunes. Most of western China is very dry because of the rain shadow created by the Himalaya Mountains. A rain shadow is a dry area on the leeward (opposite of windward) side of a mountainous area. The mountains block rain-producing weather and cast a "shadow" of dryness behind them. The Taklimakan Desert is found in the dry west. It is framed by the Kunlun Mountains to the south and the Tian Shan Mountains to the north. There is very little water in the Taklimakan and crossing it is extremely hazardous. The mountains and deserts have played an important role in Asian history since they created natural barriers to outsiders.

Despite the dry and mountainous terrain of East Asia, there are some low plains suitable for early civilization. The North China Plain is an alluvial plain found along the Huang River on the east coast of China. Alluvial means its made of rich soil deposited by a flooding river. The North China Plain is the main area where farming is done in China. The main food grown in China is rice. Rice grows best in warm areas that have flooded fields-often called rice paddies (pictured on left). Since rice produces more food per acre than wheat, it can support a much higher population.

Heavy summer rains and snowmelt support 2 large river systems in East Asia. The Huang He or Yellow River is the 6th longest river in the world. It is called the Yellow River because the water picks up yellowish loess or silt from the western half of the river (pictured on right). The river is known for the amount of silt or small pieces of dirt it carries. Geographers estimate about 1.4 billion tons of silt flow into the Yellow Sea. Along the Huang in the North China Plain is where China's early civilization began. The River is also called "China's Sorrow" because of its deadly floods.

East Asia has many different climate types. Much of China has a Humid Subtropical climate. Another thing that affects the precipitation in East Asia is monsoon winds. Similar to South Asia, the summer monsoon brings heavy rain and the winter monsoon is very dry. This can cause horrible flooding and destruction. Most of the river water in East Asia comes from melting snow and ice in the mountains, but heavy rainfall creates conditions for natural disasters.

More than two-thirds of China is covered in mountains and deserts. Arable land or land that can be farmed, is an important resource. Despite China's large amount of land, very little of it can be farmed. Only about 14 percent of China can be farmed. Many East Asian nations use terrace farming (pictured on right) to create more land that can be farmed. Terraces are created by cutting "steps" into a mountain side and using the flat part of the "step" to grow rice. They leave a lip or edge on each terrace that keeps the water in the paddy.

Early Chinese History

Humans probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. Recently, pieces of clay pottery have been discovered in a Chinese hunter-gatherer cave that dates back to 18,000 years ago-this is the oldest pottery ever discovered (pictured left). Historians believe farming began in China about 7,000 BCE. The first crop grown was a grain called millet. Rice was farmed around the same time, and there is some evidence that points to rice being farmed before millet.

Farming created more food, which increased populations and allowed people to do different jobs besides constantly looking for food. Eventually, people needed leaders to organize irrigation and store food. Families that controlled land and irrigation became powerful. So, civilization developed in China the same way it developed in South Asia, Southwest Asia, and North Africa. This change was very gradual and happened differently in certain areas depending on the resources that were available. Some groups never settled, they migrated north, maybe following herds of animals. They eventually crossed the frozen Bering Strait and migrated all the way to North America. They arrived between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago and became the native people of North America. The Navajo, Aztec, Inuit, Inca, Apache, and Shawnee are all decedents of East Asian early people to decided not to stay in one place and farm.

Ancient Chinese Civilization

It is difficult to be sure about China's early ancient history. Most historians agree that civilization occurred sometime around 2000 BCE along the Yellow River. China was home to one of the four early civilizations found around the world. However, China is different from the other civilizations. The culture that developed in Ancient China thousands of years ago became the nation of China that exists today. Of course there have been changes along the way, but the same culture has continued. The other three early civilizations have faded away or been completely overtaken by new people. For this reason, people say China is the oldest continuous civilization in the world. In China, the powerful families that controlled land became leaders of family-controlled governments called dynasties. Chinese history from ancient times until about 100 years ago is divided by different dynasties. To help keep track, we've highlighted the dynasties below. There are many more, but we've tried to focus on the major dynasties that shaped Chinese history.

The Xia Dynasty (2000 BCE-1600 BCE) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. It lasted around 500 years and included the reigns of 17 emperors--an emperor is similar to a king. The Xia people were farmers, with bronze weapons and clay pottery. One artifact called a "bi" (pictured on right) seems to be a burial artifact. Bi's have been found throughout Chinese history. Silk is one of the most important products China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty was producing silk clothing, though silk production may have started much earlier. Silk is made by unraveling the cocoons of Silk Worms. Each cocoon is made from a single silk thread. Not all historians agree that the Xia was a real dynasty. Some believe the story of the Xia were just a mythical story because the stories sound embellished and they don't match exactly with the archeology that has been discovered so far. The Xia stories come from written history from the next dynasty, but there are some artifacts to support the existence of the Xia Dynasty.

The Shang Dynasty (1600 BCE-1046 BCE) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is group of very close families that are often viewed as one big family. The Shang conquered Xia land and gained control of Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors. The Shang were the oldest Chinese civilization to leave behind written records, called oracle bones-turtle shells, cattle shoulders or other bones on which were written important clues to Chinese history. Oracle bones were often used to determine what the gods/nature wanted. If the kingdom needed to know something such as 'will the king have a son' or 'should we go to war', it would be carved into bone or shell. They would then heat the bone until it cracked. The crack lines would reveal the wishes of the gods--this process of learning what the gods want is called divination. During the Shang Dynasty people worshipped many gods. Ancestor worship was very important since they believed their family members became god-like in the after life. Shang government invented new ways to make bronze crafts. Thousands of bronze artifacts have been found including some that weigh nearly 2000 pounds. Its important to understand that other smaller cultures existed in the same time as the Shang in different parts of China, but the Shang left written records and seem to be the most advanced. Eventually, the Shang were defeated by the Zhou clan.

The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BCE-256 BCE) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. The Zhou (pronounced "Jow"), time period is divided into parts called the Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou because there was a brief disruption in their control of the government. The Zhou battled with invading armies from the north (Mongolians), so they built large mounds of dirt and rock as barriers that would slow down the enemy--this was not the Great Wall yet, but the idea came before the wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time--it was extremely effective and feared by enemies. During the Zhou, the use of iron was introduced to China, which begins the Iron Age in China. Iron tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped to increase food production.

Agriculture was usually directed by the government. All farming lands were owned by nobles (wealthy). They allowed peasants to farm the land similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe in the Middle Ages. The government directed farming by dividing a piece of land into nine squares in the shape of the character for "water well," (井), with the grain from the middle square taken by the government. The individual farmers kept the square of grain in the surrounding squares and worked the middle square together. This allowed the government to store extra food in case disaster struck.

During the Zhou Dynasty Taoism (also spelled Daoism) and Confucianism developed-the two most important Chinese philosophies. A philosophy is a basically the way of life that helps to understand the world. In this case, Chinese philosophies are very similar to religions. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a way of life called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be taught and improved if they do the right things. People should focus on doing the right thing for others, make family the most important, and respect elders of society. Family is extremely important in this philosophy. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widely followed in China until the Han Dynasty. Confucianism formed the cultural values and social beliefs that shape Chinese culture today.

The founder of Taoism was named Laozi. Taoism is all about following the "Tao", which means the "way" or "path". The Tao is the driving force behind all things in the universe. The Yin Yang symbol is usually associated with Taoism. Taoists believe you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, live simply without too many possessions and have compassion for all life. These philosophies are different from religions because they don't have an all powerful god or gods, although the idea of ancestors and nature are often treated like gods.

The power of the emperor was also related to religious beliefs. The Zhou talked about the Mandate of Heaven as the law that allowed Chinese emperors to rule-it said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule the people. If he lost the blessing of heaven he should be removed. Things that proved the ruling family had lost the Mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and rebellions. For example, if a draught or flood was particularly bad, people may begin to think the ruling family had lost the Mandate of Heaven. This was a change from the past belief of the "divine right of kings" which is basically the children of the king or lord automatically became the next king or lord once the father dies. The Zhou interpretation of the Mandate of Heaven was different because there was no guarantee that the children of the emperor would "hold the Mandate" or even that the Zhou family would keep the Mandate of Heaven.

Imperial China

From 221 BCE to 206 BCE the Qin Dynasty (pronounced "chin") gained control of civilized China. The Qin didn't last very long, but made an important impact on China's future. During and before this time, Ancient Chinas was not one large unified culture of people. China is very large and there were very different regions and peoples outside of the colored areas you see in these maps. The Qin greatly expanded their civilized territory and brought more regions under their control and connected them with "imperial roads" This expansion of territory under one ruler created China's first empire. The brutal leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China.

This dynasty designed standard currency (money), standard wheel axle size (to make roads all one size), and standard laws that applied to the entire empire. Standardize means to make the same. The Qin also standardized the different systems of writing into one system called small seal script that much of China still uses today. Qin Shi Huang enforced a philosophy called Legalism that focuses on people following laws and taking instructions from the government. However, many followers of Confucianism were more loyal to their family and other Confucian traditions. To silence their protests, the emperor banished or put to death many Confucian teachers and burned their Confucian books. At one point Qin Shi Huang killed 460 Confucian teachers by burying them alive!

Mongolian invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered walls built in the past to be connected to make a larger and stronger wall. This is usually recognized as the beginning of the Great Wall of China. Despite what you might think, the building of the Great Wall was unpopular with the people who saw it as a waste of resources. Each dynasty built new wall or improved the previous dynasty's wall. Most of the Qin Wall is gone today or been replaced. The wall that still exists today was mainly built by a later dynasty called the Ming. A number of public projects, including canals and bridges, were also built to help strengthen trade and transportation.

An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, larger than a football field and larger than anything in Ancient Egypt. It is still sealed, but legend says there are rivers of mercury and models of the entire Chinese empire inside. Outside the tomb is a life-sized army of clay soldiers, discovered in 1974 CE. This is known as the Terra Cotta Army. Terra cotta means baked clay. There are over 8,000 unique soldiers, over 600 total horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians--all individually, hand made of clay! Archeologists are still trying to put them back together as most were broken into pieces over time. Although the Qin Dynasty was short-lived, its standardization of Chinese life left a deep impact on later dynasties in China. It is from this dynasty that we get the name "China". The first emperor died in 210 BCE and was replaced by a weak and young son. Eventually, rebellion started and a member of the Qin army took control of the empire, which began a new dynasty.

The Han Dynasty began in 206 BCE and lasted 400 years until 220 CE and is considered to be one of the greatest periods in the entire history of China. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han because of a short disruption when someone tried to replace the Han family--they were unsuccessful. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim "Han" as their ethnic background. The government made Confucianism the official belief system of the empire. The empire grew greatly during this time, conquering land in modern Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and even into Central Asia. The empire had grown so much the emperor needed a larger government to rule it. He started a system of examinations (tests) to find qualified people to do civil (government) jobs such as road building or tax collecting. This system of tests is called Imperial Examinations. In fact, most modern nations use a similar system to find qualified people in a fair way.

Many things were invented during this time including paper, steel, the compass, and porcelain. Porcelain is a very hard type of ceramic (clay pottery) used to make crafts that were highly valued by people around the world. Porcelain is made from special clay that is heated until it melts and basically turns to glass. Porcelain dishes, cups, and bowls are often called "Fine China" because until a few hundred years ago, all porcelain was produced China. The Han Dynasty was also known for its military power. The empire expanded westward as far as the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, which allowed the government to guard and control the trade traffic across Central Asia. Trading goods was a major part of ancient economies. Chinese goods often found their way thousands of miles away from China. In fact, during this time Chinese goods such as silk fabric, porcelain, spices and many other products were becoming very popular in Ancient Rome. Merchants and traders would travel in groups called caravans across mountains and deserts to sell their goods.

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The paths of caravan traffic are often called the "Silk Road" because the route was used to export Chinese silk. The Silk Road trade were the first consistent contact that China made with other civilizations. It wasn't only good that were exchanged along the Silk Road, but also ideas. Another important result of the Silk Road travel was the religion of Buddhism reaching China. Buddhism is a major religion in China today.

Chinese dynasties would continue to rule China until Medieval times when the Mongolians finally conquered China a little over 800 years ago in the 1200's CE. Chinese families eventually fought back and regained control, which they maintained until 1911 when Chinese people finally forced the emperor out of power for the first time. This left a big empty space for control of China. As other groups tried to grab the power of the government a civil war began. Again, China is unique because they have continued the same culture since ancient times without invasion from other civilizations armies or even ideas until the very end. Oddly enough, there are very few examples of architecture from Ancient China or even Imperial China. The reason is because China primarily used wood as its main building material. Similar to Ancient Iraq (Mesopotamia) using clay, very few ancient structures exist today, but the lack of stone monuments in no way represents a lack of advanced society, innovation, and greatness.

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Ancient China | Ancient History For Kids

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Ancient China was one of the four early human civilizations. Many inventions we have today came from Ancient China. China is the longest running civilization that in many ways still exists today.

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Understanding Ancient Egypt We really hope you enjoy these fun facts about Egypt. You will learn about the Pharaoh’s who were the Kings of all the land. Did you know that the ancient Egyptians worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses? Or that they invented things like the calendar and glass blowing…

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Exploring Ancient China

In early ancient China, many people worked at farming, but it was not an easy life. They had extravagant temples and even built the Great wall of China over 2000 years ago. Many different emperors ruled ancient China, which you will read about in the dynasties of ancient China section. Did you know that they also invented many different things that are in use today like the compass, fireworks and even the harness for horses? Have fun reading and learn about the people of ancient

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Exploring Ancient China In early ancient China, many people worked at farming, but it was not an easy life. They had extravagant temples and even built the Great wall of China over 2000 years ago. Many different emperors ruled ancient China, which you will read about in the dynasties of ancient China section.

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Discover Ancient Rome

Understanding people in the past can be fun, learning about ancient Rome is interesting and enjoyable. Some kings like Lucius were not very popular and sometimes cruel to people. They became very powerful and conquered other lands. They had patricians who were rich nobles and owner a lot of land. The plebeians were servants, tradesmen and generally had smaller farms. Enjoy learning and do not forget it is about having fun.

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Discover Ancient Rome Understanding people in the past can be fun, learning about ancient Rome is interesting and enjoyable. Some kings like Lucius were not very popular and sometimes cruel to people. They became very powerful and conquered other lands. They had patricians who were rich nobles and owner a lot of land.

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Back to History for Kids
Ancient Rome was a powerful and important civilization that ruled much of Europe for nearly 1000 years. The culture of Ancient Rome was spread throughout Europe during its rule. As a result, Rome's culture still has an impact in the Western world today. The basis for much of Western culture comes from Ancient Rome, especially in areas such as government, engineering, architecture, language, and literature.

The city of Rome is the capital of Italy today
Map of Italy from the CIA World Factbook

The Roman Republic

Rome first grew into power as a Republic. This meant that Rome's leaders, such as senators, were elected officials that served for a limited amount of time, not kings who were born into leadership and ruled for life. They had a complex government with written laws, a constitution, and a balance of powers. These concepts became very important in forming future democratic governments, like the United States.

The Republic would rule Rome for hundreds of years from around 509 BC to 45 BC.

The Roman Empire

In 45 BC Julius Caesar took over the Roman Republic and made himself the supreme dictator. This was the end of the republic. A few years later, in 27 BC, Caesar Augustus became the first Roman Emperor and this was the start of the Roman Empire. Much of the lower level government stayed the same, but now the Emperor had supreme power.

The Roman Forum was the center of government
Photo by Adrian Pingstone

The Empire Splits

As the Roman Empire grew it became more and more difficult to manage from the city of Rome. Eventually the Roman leaders decided to split Rome into two empires. One was the Western Roman Empire and was ruled out of the city of Rome. The other was the Eastern Roman Empire and was ruled out of Constantinople (today's Istanbul in Turkey). The Eastern Roman Empire would become known as Byzantium or theByzantine Empire.

Fall of Rome

The fall of Rome generally refers to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It fell in 476 AD. The Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, would rule parts of Eastern Europe for another 1000 years.

Interesting Facts about Ancient Rome

The city of Rome is the capital of Italy today. It sits on the same site as the city of ancient Rome. If you were to visit Rome you could see many of the original ancient buildings such as the Colosseum and the Roman Forum.

The Circus Maximus, a huge stadium built for chariot races, could seat around 150,000 people.

The fall of Western Rome is considered the start of the "Dark Ages" in Europe.

The highest position in the Roman Republic was the consul. There were two consuls at the same time to make sure that one didn't become too powerful.

The native language of the Romans was Latin, but they often spoke Greek as well.

When Julius Caesar took power he named himself dictator for life. However, this didn't last long as he was assassinated a year later.

Recommended books and references:

Nature Company Discoveries library: Ancient Rome by Judith Simpson. 1997.

Exploring the culture, people & ideas of this powerful empire by Avery Hart & Sandra Gallagher ; illustrations by Michael Kline. 2002.

Eyewitness Books: Ancient Rome written by Simon James. 2004.

Activities

Take a ten questionquiz about this page.
Ancient Rome crossword puzzle
Ancient Rome word search

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For more about Ancient Rome:

Works Cited
Back to History for Kids

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Kids learn about the civilization and history of Ancient Rome including the Roman Republic, Empire, art, religion, army, daily life, people, Senate, and the fall of Rome. Educational articles for students, schools, and teachers.

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Ancient Rome for Kids and Teachers - Interactive and Free Online Games, Lesson Plans, Activities, and More - Ancient Rome for Kids

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Welcome to ancient Rome! Cheer for Horatius at the Bridge. Play games. Fight gladiators! Discover why Julius Caesar was assassinated. Explore the written laws of the 12 Tables. Investigate how Emperor Nero cheated to win a race in the Circus Maximus! Decipher the code to secret meet…

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The ancient Greeks loved competitions and they loved to brag. To be fair, they had a great deal to brag about. The ancient Greeks gave us many gifts - the Olympics, democracy, the theatre, comedy, tragedy, the wheelbarrow, the alphabet, advances in medicine and science, architectural wonders like the ancient Greek columns, incredible myths, tales of legends, heroes, and fables, to name a few. Theirs was a culture envied and copied by other ancient civilizations. Come meet the ancient Greeks. Learn how the brave ancient Greek hero Theseus escaped the maze! Meet the god Apollo's Oracle, where things are not always as they seem. Argue with Socrates, the great teacher. Read Aesop's fables, a collection of very short stories that are still popular today. Play interactive games about ancient Greece.

But first, a little background: Over two thousand five hundred (2,500+) years ago, ancient Greece was made up of many hundreds of Greek city-states, grouped together at the southern end of a very large peninsula that jutted out from Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. Smaller peninsulas stuck out from the main Greek peninsula, forming a great deal of natural coastline and many natural harbors. It's no wonder the Greeks were great sailors and fishermen!

A huge mountain range ran down the middle of the Greek peninsula. The people believed that the ancient Greek mystical world was ruled by a small group of powerful gods called the 12 Olympians who lived at the top of the highest mountain, Mount Olympus. Although you could try to climb to the top, you'd never make it because the top of Mount Olympus was hidden in fog and snow and magic. When things had to be decided in the mythical world, the council of 12 gods met on Mount Olympus to discuss things, which was a very Greek thing to do - talk it over first, and then either sign a legally binding document with agreed upon terms, go to war, or get even! That was the Greek way of doing things.

The Greeks told wonderful myths about their gods. Poseidon, lord of the sea, could raise his hand and a new island would appear! Apollo brought up the sun every day, and his twin sister Artemis brought up the moon. Most of the gods avoided Ares. Nobody liked him much, not even his father, the mighty Zeus, but Ares was the god of war, so you had to keep him on your side if you could. Speaking of the mighty Zeus, king of all the gods, Zeus probably caused more trouble than any of them, even more than Aphrodite, the goddess of love. The Greeks did not limit their myths to stories about the 12 powerful Olympians. They told stories about all the gods and goddesses and the magical, mythical creatures in which they believed.

Many of their mythical beings looked like people, but some looked like monsters, because, well .. they were! Fortunately, the ancient Greeks found a way to beat monsters, nearly always with trickery and cleverness, two skills that were greatly admired by the ancient Greeks.

Ancient Greece was not a country. It was not an empire. It was a collection of over 1500 independent city-states (little itty bitty to great big sprawling villages and towns.) At one point, there were over 2,500 ancient Greek city-states on one peninsula, but some of them were taken over by another ancient Greek city-state, and some combined for safety. There was no central government, no central army, and no king or queen of ancient Greece that ruled all the city-states. Rather, each city-state had its own form of government with the power to rule only that city-state, and each city-state had its own way of doing things. Some city-states, like ancient Corinth, were ruled by kings, but each king only ruled that particular city-state. Some, like the warrior city-state of Sparta, were ruled by councils. Ancient Athens, the jewel of the ancient Greek city-states, experimented with an early form of democracy.

As varied as they were in the way they governed themselves, when it came to culture and beliefs, the ancient Greek people had a great deal in common. The ancient Greeks spoke the same language. They worshiped the same gods. They told the same myths. They believed in beauty and honor. The ancient Greeks were very loyal to their city-state. But because of their common culture, they also recognized themselves as Greeks.

The ancient Greek city-states did, on occasion, team up against a common foe. They also went to war with each other, unless the ancient Olympic Games were in progress . The Greeks invented the Olympics, and took the event quite seriously. Nearly all the ancient Greek city-states sent teams to participate. If two or more Greek city-states happen to be at war with each other when the game date arrived, war was halted for the duration of the games. The Greek Olympics were not the only games in ancient Greece - the Greeks loved competition of all sorts - but the Olympics were the most important. Every city-state wanted to brag that their athletics (their statues, their theatre, their fabrics) were the best!

Welcome to Ancient Greece!

Ancient Greek Gods & Goddesses

Ancient Greek Mythical Monsters

Ancient Greek Myths - retold by Lin Donn Here are some of them:
Zeus, Hera, and Little Io The Competition, Athena and Poseidon Theseus, the Minotaur, and the Maze Dionysus and Ariadne Hades, Zeus, and the King of Corinth Icarus and Daedalus, Wings Baby Hercules &
The 12 Labors of Hercules Demeter and Persephone, Reason for the Seasons Apollo's Oracle at Delphi Apollo and Cassandra
The Magic Rocks - a myth about Ares, the god of war
Perseus, Andromeda, and the sea god, Poseidon Orpheus and Eurydice Eros & Psyche Aphrodite and the Trojan War
Prometheus and the Gift of Fire

Pandora's Box
Zeus and the Great Flood Zeus, Helios & Phaethon Three Tales of Echo - Hera, Narcissus, and Pan King Midas and the Golden Touch King Midas and the Donkey Ears Story of the Just Plain Rotten King Tantalus
Artemis and the Deer Hunter
Hermes & Apollo (cartoon PowerPoint, how Apollo got his lyre)Hades and the River Styx Greek Monster Myths Perseus and Medusa The Cyclops Cave & The Sirens The Truth About Myths
Ancient Greek Gods by name and powers

And More:

Worship, Temples, Sacred Sites

Acropolis & Parthenon

Greek Legends
Greek Fables
Gifts from the Greeks:

Free Interactive Games for Ancient Greece

Free PowerPoints about Ancient Greece

Mr. Donn's Interactive Free Quizzes with answers - TEST YOURSELF

For Teachers

Free Lesson Plans and Units for Teachers

Free Classroom Activities and Projects

Investigate Real Life Artifacts

Other Ancients

Explore other ancient cultures

Online interactive free games

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Ancient Greece for Kids - City-States, Gods, Goddesses, Myths, Daily Life, Inventions, Geography, Achievements, and more - Ancient Greece for Kids

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The ancient Greeks loved competitions and they loved to brag. To be fair, they had a great deal to brag about. The ancient Greeks gave us many gifts - the Olympics, democracy, the theatre, comedy, tragedy, the wheelbarrow, the alphabet, advances in medicine and science, architectural wonders like the ancient Greek columns, incredible myths, tales of legends, heroes, and fables, to name a few.

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Guide to Ancient Greece

The Ancient Greeks lived around 3,500 years ago their legacy shapes the world we live in today. For some people, life in Greece was good, and many lived in busy towns and cities. They build many temples and very important building that all stood on hills. You will learn about daily life and how they tried to make sense of the world with Philosophy. We hope you have fun learning about this wonderful topic and time in history.

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Guide to Ancient Greece The Ancient Greeks lived around 3,500 years ago their legacy shapes the world we live in today. For some people, life in Greece was good, and many lived in busy towns and cities. They build many temples and very important building that all stood on hills.

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Ancient Rome for Kids | Learn all about the History of the Roman Empire for Kids

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Ancient Greece for Kids | Learn all Ancient Greek history with this fun overview

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Kids learn about the civilization and history of ancient Greece including the government, philosophy, science, Athens, Sparta, daily life, people, art, architecture, theater, and mythology. Educational articles for students, schools, and teachers.

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Find out how oracle bones could foretell the future! Meet Confucius, the great teacher. Read ancient stories like Nian the Monster, Wang the Peddler, and Loawnu the Wise. Discover how paper was invented. Learn about Taoism and the Ugly Duckling. Walk the Great Wall of China. Travel and trade along the dangerous Silk Road! Meet magical creatures. Guess the meaning of two ancient Chinese fables. Discover guardian dragons. Explore daily life in the Xia, Shang, Chou, Qin, Han, Tang, Song and Ming Dynasties. Welcome to Ancient China!

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Find out how oracle bones could foretell the future! Meet Confucius, the great teacher. Read ancient stories like Nian the Monster, Wang the Peddler, and Loawnu the Wise. Discover how paper was invented. Learn about Taoism and the Ugly Duckling. Walk the Great Wall of China. Travel and trade along the dangerous Silk Road!

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Kids learn about the history of Ancient China. Educational articles for teachers, students, and schools including the culture, art, religions, clothing, geography, empire, government, daily life, people, and dynasties of Ancient China.

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Ancient China: History, Dynasties & Inventions

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History for kids - Free history network for kids

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Ancient Indian Daily Life

Ancient India was a civilization that flourished from around 2600 BCE to 500 BCE. It was characterized by a complex social structure, with a caste system that divided people into different classes based on their occupation and birth.

The Indus Valley Civilization, which was one of the earliest civilizations in the world, was located in ancient India. The civilization was known for its advanced urban planning, sophisticated drainage systems, and impressive public works.

Ancient India also gave birth to important religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, which continue to have a significant impact on the world today.

Ancient India Facts for Kids

Indus Valley: One of the world's first cities, Mohenjo-Daro, was in India.

Writing: Ancient Indians developed the Sanskrit language.

Mathematics: They invented the concept of zero and decimal systems.

Yoga: Yoga originated in ancient India, over 5,000 years ago.

Chess: The game of chess was first created in India.

Medicine: Ancient India practiced Ayurveda, an early form of medicine.

Clothing: Cotton was first spun and woven in India.

Religion: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism started in India.

Empires: The Maurya and Gupta Empires were major powers.

Art: Indian artisans were known for pottery, painting, and sculpture.

Ancient Indian Civilizations

Ancient Indian civilizations like the Indus Valley and the Vedic civilization shaped early Indian culture and society. The Indus Valley civilization is known for its advanced urban planning and remarkable architectural accomplishments.

Later, the Vedic civilization laid the groundwork for cultural and religious norms, including the creation of the oldest Hindu scriptures, the Vedas. Empires like the Maurya and Gupta also emerged, marking periods of significant progress in multiple fields. These civilizations have left a lasting legacy that continues to influence present-day India.

Hinduism

Hinduism originated in ancient India, with the Vedic period being critical to its formation. This era gave birth to the four Vedas, the earliest scriptures that house the spiritual concepts of Hinduism. Key philosophical epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana were also created during this time.

These texts and the six schools of Hindu philosophy shaped the comprehensive worldview of Hinduism. Ancient Indian temples reflect this period's architectural excellence and religious devotion. So, ancient India was pivotal in Hinduism's development and growth.

Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism and Jainism, both significant religions, originated in ancient India. Buddhism, founded by the Buddha, focuses on the path to enlightenment through the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. On the other hand, Jainism, established around the same time, emphasizes non-violence, truth, and asceticism, and believes in karma and reincarnation. Both religions have contributed to India's spiritual and cultural landscapes, promoting pathways to liberation through peace and personal spiritual growth.

Indian Philosophies

Ancient India was a hub of philosophical thought. This period saw the development of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, each exploring deep metaphysical questions about reality and self. Around the same time, Jainism and Buddhism emerged, adding their unique perspectives to philosophical discourse.

Jain philosophy introduced non-absolutism, while Buddhism focused on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. These diverse philosophies continue to influence philosophical discussions in India and globally.

Ancient Indian Science and Mathematics

Ancient India greatly influenced science and mathematics. Indian mathematicians introduced key concepts like zero and the decimal system. In astronomy, they made accurate celestial calculations. They developed Ayurveda, a holistic healing system, and showcased their expertise in architecture and urban planning in the Indus Valley Civilization. These achievements form a vital part of the world's scientific history.

Maurya and Gupta Empires

The Maurya and Gupta Empires were influential dynasties in ancient India. The Maurya Empire, led by Ashoka, expanded greatly and promoted Buddhism and peace. The Gupta Empire, known as India's "Golden Age", saw advancements in arts, science, and culture, and the development of the decimal system. Both empires greatly shaped India's socio-cultural landscape.

Ashoka the Great

Ashoka the Great, a significant figure in ancient India, ruled the Maurya Empire around 268 to 232 BCE. His reign is known for military conquests and cultural advancements. However, his conversion to Buddhism after the battle of Kalinga is his defining legacy.

This led him to promote peace, non-violence, and social welfare through "Dhamma." He also spread Buddhism beyond India and introduced written communication via pillars and rock edicts. Ashoka's enlightened rule is still admired today.

Ancient Indian Art and Architecture

Ancient Indian art and architecture represent its rich cultural heritage. The Indus Valley Civilization showcased advanced city planning, while the Mauryan period introduced the renowned Ashoka pillars. The Gupta period saw the rise of temple and rock-cut architecture, as seen in the Ajanta and Ellora caves.

Art often depicted religious and philosophical themes, with sculptures and paintings showcasing divine beings and scenes from religious texts. These artistic and architectural traditions have left a lasting impact on India's cultural legacy.

Ancient Indian Trade and Commerce

Ancient India had a flourishing economy with active international trade. The Indus Valley Civilization traded with regions like Mesopotamia, and later, the Mauryan and Gupta periods saw expanded commerce due to agricultural advancements and improved transport routes.

Goods such as spices, cotton, and precious stones were traded widely. India's position on the Silk Road also made it a key hub in global trade. This economic prosperity significantly shaped ancient India's societal and cultural growth.

Unearthing Ancient Wonders: A Glimpse into an Advanced Civilization

Archaeological excavations in 1922 revealed two ancient cities with well-planned layouts, featuring straight roads and organized blocks. The majority of houses in these cities were constructed using baked brick and had flat roofs. As discussed in the Architecture section, these houses were equipped with courtyards, wells, and even bathrooms. Additionally, towns boasted grain storage facilities and public baths where people could enjoy swimming.

The excavations yielded fascinating discoveries, including various artifacts such as miniature toy carts, birds, and a monkey toy capable of sliding down a string! Ancient Indian artwork provides insights into the cultural practices of the inhabitants, highlighting their fondness for dance and song. Moreover, their artistic skills extended to pottery, metalwork, and the weaving of fabrics. These skilled craftsmen also manufactured wheeled carts, boats, and ships.

India's Early Cotton Legacy: Fashion and Jewels Unearthed

The early Indians may have been the first in the world to grow cotton, and they used it to make colorful clothing. The women must have loved to dress up, as many pieces of jewelry have been found: items made of gold, precious stones, and shells.

Ancient Aryan Life: Insights from Sacred Texts and Communal Hearth

The Aryan people migrated to India from Central Asia around 1500 BC. Our understanding of their daily life during that time comes from the books they wrote. Life revolved around communal gatherings near a central fireplace, where people would engage in conversations about the day's events.

Each "tribe" had a chief, and leadership was typically hereditary, passed down from father to son. Men enjoyed activities like gambling, storytelling, and engaging in conflicts. Women primarily took care of the household and children. In terms of education, instead of formal schools, children had a Guru or teacher who provided instruction. The transmission of information primarily relied on oral tradition, necessitating memorization.

The Caste System: Past Hierarchical Organization and Present Impact

When the Hindu religion gained popularity, the caste system emerged. A caste refers to a social class with assigned roles in society. This system aimed to bring organization but was inherently unfair and unjust, especially towards those in lower castes.

The highest rank was held by the Brahmans, who served as priests and leaders. Next were the Kshatriyas, the warrior class. Following them were the Vaishyas, comprising farm and business owners. Below them were the Shudras, who worked as servants and farm laborers.

Lastly, there were the Untouchables, assigned to menial tasks nobody else would undertake. The Untouchables occupied a position only slightly above that of slaves. Although the caste system has been legally abolished in modern India, remnants of its influence persist in society.

Ancient Indian Diet: Crops, Livestock, and Changing Practices

What comprised the ancient Indian diet? Ancient Indians cultivated various crops such as wheat, barley, rice, chickpeas, lentils, dates, and vegetables. They also raised livestock including sheep, pigs, cows, and water buffalo for meat consumption. Fishing provided another source of food, namely fish. Wheat was utilized in the preparation of chapatis, a type of flatbread. Moreover, the presence of sugarcane in the region likely contributed to the enjoyment of sweet desserts.

Around the year 300, with the rise of Hinduism, dietary practices began to shift. Many adherents embraced a reduction in meat consumption due to ethical concerns regarding animal killing. In subsequent centuries, the worship of a cow-sacred goddess led to the complete abstention from beef consumption.

Muslim Invasions and Changes in Diet and Attire in Northern India

When the Muslims invaded northern India, they introduced religious restrictions on consuming pork, leading to a further decline in meat consumption. Consequently, many Indians adopted a vegetarian lifestyle.

As for clothing, cotton was the predominant fabric worn by Indians, although the affluent occasionally donned silk garments imported from China. Women commonly wore a long cloth called a sari, with young women favoring vibrant colors and older women often opting for white. Men, on the other hand, wore a white, skirt-like cloth known as a dhoti, which could be wrapped around the legs to resemble pants. They also adorned a turban, a cloth wrapped around their heads.

Impact of Muslim Invasion: Fashion, Games, and Athletics in India

After the Muslim invasion, the influence of Muslim fashions became evident as some Indians adopted trousers paired with a long tunic. Additionally, the tradition of adorning a red dot on the forehead, known as a bindi, for decorative purposes emerged and continues to be observed by some.

As for games enjoyed by Indian children, ancient dice have been discovered in the region, indicating that Indians may have been early pioneers in dice games. Indian contributions to game history include the likely invention of Chutes and Ladders, with some evidence suggesting the development of Chess (though influenced by Chinese origins). Indians also introduced the game of Parcheesi and engaged in the African game of Mancala.

Furthermore, Indians found delight in athletic pursuits such as wrestling and camel racing, with a curiosity about the speed capabilities of camels.

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Ancient Indian Daily Life - History for kids

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Ancient India was a civilization that flourished from around 2600 BCE to 500 BCE. It was characterized by a complex social structure, with a caste system that divided people into different classes based on their occupation and birth.

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What did the ancient Indians wear? What did they eat? Did kids play with toys? Did they go to school? This site shares daily life in three major time periods; the mysterious Indus Valley Civilization, the Vedic & Epics Periods, and the Gupta Empire, the Golden Age of Ancient India.

The Mysterious Indus Valley Civilization: In 1922, archaeologists made an exciting discovery - the remains of an ancient city from a previously unknown civilization. They named this city Harappa. Shortly thereafter, and with help from local guides, they found another city. They called this one Mohenjo-Daro. Since that time, archeologists have found over a thousand cities in the Indus Valley! That is a huge civilization. The more cities they found, the more amazed archaeologists became. They discovered that thousands of years ago, these ancient people built planned cities with straight streets, and brick homes with private baths. Some of their cities had a populations of 35,000 people. There was a sewer system and a water system that serviced each house in each city. Each house had two or three bedrooms, but there were no palaces. All of this was very unusual. There is no question that this was a very advanced civilization. How advanced is still under investigation. Archaeologists and historians believe these early people probably had a central government, but no one knows for sure. They believe it existed from about 3000 BCE to about 1500 BCE, which means it existed at the same time as the ancient Sumerian and ancient Egyptian civilizations. Did they know each other? Did they trade with each other? Based on the remains found at these sites, archaeologists believe they probably did.

The Vedic and Epics Periods: Aryan tribes swooped down from the north and conquered the people already living in northwestern India. Life became very different under Aryan rule. The Aryans were warriors. They had no written language. They did not have a central government. Instead, the people were divided into many clans. Each clan was ruled by an hereditary chief. The chief made the decisions, but only after hearing from the rest of the tribe. Anyone in that clan could speak at these meetings. But, when the chief made a decision after hearing from the people, they all obeyed. The Aryans were proud and fierce, and deeply religious. They had many gods and goddesses. They loved to tell stories around the central campfire at night. Some of these stories became the Vedas, or the sacred text of Hinduism, which today is a major religion. The Aryan people told the stories of the Vedas, over and over for a thousand years, until they were finally written down during the Gupta Empire (around 500 BCE.) It is the stories of the Vedas that tell historians a great deal about these ancient people.

The Gupta Empire: The Gupta Empire came next. The Gupta did have a central government, a ruling dynasty, assisted by many officials. This empire existed at the same time as the Roman Empire. The Gupta empire was made up of many Gupta villages. A Gupta village was a noisy place. The streets were narrow with houses on both sides. Businesses, selling all kinds of things, sold from stalls set up in the street. The smell of cooking filled the air as food vendors sold their wares. Animals wandered freely about. People were for the most part safe and prosperous during the Gupta period. It is called the " Golden Age" of ancient India because of that peace and prosperity. The people had religious freedom. Hinduism, brought to ancient India by the Aryans, was clearly the preferred religion, but Buddhism, another major religion, flourished as well. The empire provided simple health care for free. Writers, artists and musicians were paid to produce their art. The universities of Gupta were so famous that scholars from China came there to learn.

Ancient India was a fascinating place! These early people created many unusual inventions, told fabulous stories, and played some really neat games. Welcome to ancient India!
For Kids India Geography
The Ancient Indus Valley Civilization

The Aryans:

The Gupta Empire:

Ancient India: Many (many!) inventions and achievements

India Today: For Kids
Festivals of India Stories from India for Kids Amazing animals that live in India History of India Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Compared (for kids)
Quiz: Take the India Quiz, interactive with answers

Games: Play Free Interactive Online Games for Kids about India

Investigate Real Life Artifacts

For Teachers - Free use lesson plans and activities
Lesson Plans about Ancient India Overviews, Units about the Country of India
Our thanks!

Our thanks to author/historian Sudheer Birodkar for answering our many questions about daily life in ancient India!

Mr. Donn and Maxie's Always Something You Can Use Series
Written by Lin & Don Donn, Published by Good Year Books

Mr. Donn and Maxie's Ancient History PowerPoints Series
Written by Lin & Don Donn,
illustrated by Phillip Martin, Published by Good Year Books

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Ancient India for Kids and Teachers - Free Games, Lesson Plans, Powerpoints, Learning Modules, Activities - Ancient India for Kids

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What did the ancient Indians wear? What did they eat? Did kids play with toys? Did they go to school? This site shares daily life in three major time periods; the mysterious Indus Valley Civilization, the Vedic & Epics Periods, and the Gupta Empire, the Golden Age of Ancient India.

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South Asia Geography

South Asia is one of the four early places where human civilization began-similar to (Nile), China (Yellow), and (Tigris and Euphrates). Civilization in South Asia began along the Indus River. The land of South Asia is dominated by three main types of physical features. Mountains, rivers, and the massive triangular-shaped peninsula of India.

50 or 60 million years ago India slowly smashed into Asia and formed the Himalaya and Hindu Kush Mountains that nearly block off India from the surrounding area. Except for the coast, there are only a few narrow passes through the mountains such as the Khyber Pass that have allowed people to enter this land. The other main physical features are the Indus River in modern day Pakistan and the Ganges River in modern day India. The Indus River is in a very dry area called the Thar Desert--this Arid climate is the site for another of the world's first human civilizations.

The water in the Indus River mainly comes from melting glaciers and natural springs from the mountains that surround it. As the water runs down the mountains and hills it picks up fertile silt. The Indus River Valley would flood at least one time every year and provide irrigation--water for farmers. When the flood waters went away, they left a thin layer of fertile silt. This process that all river valley civilizations benefitted from, created excellent soil for farming. Today, much of South Asia experiences an annual change of wind direction called that usually brings massive amounts of rain. Some historians claim the Indus Valley received two annual floods.

Indus River Valley Early History

Some of the oldest human remains in South Asia date back to around 75,000 years ago. These early humans made tools and lived a nomadic hunter/gatherer life. Artifacts indicate that around 5000 BCE, farming developed in South Asia. Slowly, people began to live in permanent places and villages slowly developed-eventually these villages turned into cities and created one of the earliest human civilizations in the world. This civilization is known by many names: Ancient India, Indus Valley, and Harappan Civilization. Historians and archeologists believe the Indus Valley Civilization began around 3000 BCE. There is evidence of trade between Ancient India and Mesopotamia as early as 3200 BCE. Remember, there is no exact date when a group of cities becomes a "civilization". This area was very advanced and highly populated prior to 3000 BCE. The evidence suggests Ancient India relied on trade in a larger way than other early civilizations.

Ancient Indian Civilization

Ancient India is often called the Harappan Civilization because one of the ancient cities was called Harappa. Harappa was just one of 1500 cities in the Indus River Valley! Another well-known city is called Mohenjo-Daro. Historians estimate Ancient India to be the biggest of all four early civilizations. One thing that makes Ancient Indian so interesting is that this civilization was not discovered until the 1920's CE, and much of this civilization remains a mystery today.

One reason the Indus Valley civilization is so mysterious is because historians have not been able to translate their complicated written language called Indus Script. There are thousands of artifacts with 400-600 different written symbols. Most of these symbols were pressed into soft clay with seals. A seal is similar to a stamp that makes an impression in the soft clay. Seals are sometimes in a cylinder shape so they can be rolled on the clay. Indus Script symbols have been discovered in Mesopotamia, which suggests they maintained a regular trade.

Farmers domesticated several plants including melons, wheat, peas, dates, sesame seeds, and cotton, as well as many animals. Archeologists have discovered what food the Ancient Indian people ate by examining the teeth of skeletons and food storage areas. Another example of how well planned the Indus Valley civilization was is their grain storage building. Some historians believe they have discovered a massive granary nearly 200 feet long to store and dry wheat. However, there is no evidence of grain in this building, so once again, historians are uncertain about the mysterious Indus Valley civilization. Most of the large cities were surrounded by large walls. It's possible these were built to keep out invaders, but also just as likely they were used to keep out the regular flood waters. Another mystery is that there are no large temples or palaces. Archeologists and historians haven't found any evidence of a large castle for a king or religious leader which is found in all other civilizations. Some have suggested Ancient India could have been a very equal place were leaders might live similar lives to many of the people.

Archeologist have found the remains of cities to be incredibly well planned out. Historians estimate that each major city could support as many as 80,000 people, so Ancient India was by far the largest early civilization. The buildings were made from mud-bricks that had been fired in a kiln to make it harder. A kiln is a hot oven or furnace to bake clay pottery. City planners started by digging water wells and water drainage systems with main roads and small roads laid out in a square grid. Finally, homes were built along the roads, sometimes with multiple stories. It appears that most urban homes had water drain systems in the their home--a technology that wouldn't be matched in history for over 3000 years. However, most people didn't live in the urban areas. Most people lived in farming villages in rural areas.

Ancient India was different from the Egyptians and Mesopotamians in several ways. One way they are different is that there appear to be very few large structures in Ancient India. One of the largest structures that has been discovered is called the Great Bath. Basically its a public pool that is over 40 feet long, 20 feet wide, and nearly 10 feet deep. If large temples or palaces once existed they are gone today. This leads to a curious question--did Ancient India have kings or high ranked religious leaders? What did the social pyramid look like? The remains of the civilization suggests they were a very egalitarian society. Egalitarian means everyone in society was basically equal. Another difference is in military and weapons. There is very little evidence of weapons and military culture in the Indus Valley. Another difference is that astronomy seems to be less important in India than in other civilizations unless the text has been lost.

The Indus Valley religion is also mysterious because the language hasn't been translated. Historians believe they may have worshiped a Mother Goddess. They believe the Great Bath could have been used for some type of baptism or religious ritual. Bathing in spiritual rivers is important in many religions today in South Asia. Might this be related to the water delivery and sewer systems in the homes of this ancient place?

A small artifact has been found that some historians think may be a priest (right), but archeologists have yet to find a temple of any kind. Some of the Indus Script symbols are related to the images of the modern religion of (left), but historians don't all agree about the symbols. The image to the left shows a three-faced person sitting in the lotus position. The lotus positions is a Yoga position of meditation where a person sits upright with their legs folded in their lap. Yoga is a spiritual practice of meditation, breathing, and body position used in many religions, especially Hinduism.

By 1500 BCE, the once vast and powerful civilization began to decline and at some point it suddenly ended. Historians are uncertain why this area's power declined. There are some theories that a great earthquake crumbled cities and changed the path of rivers, which caused them to move to a new location. Another theory claims the climate may have changed, which forced them to move. Yet another theory suggests invading armies destroyed some cities and forced most people to move. One thing we know for sure is that the civilization that once lived in this area ended and new people moved into this area. They brought new ideas and culture to the area, but likely adopted parts of Ancient India's culture and practices.

Ancient India's Vedic Period

Around 1500 BCE, Indo-European people migrated to India. These people came from the area between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea (purple on the map on the left). Between 4000 and 1000 BCE, Indo-Europeans migrated all over Europe and Asia. Some went to Europe and influenced the Romans and the Greeks; some settled in Turkey and became the Hittites, others migrated southeast instead. Some stopped in Iran, later becoming Persian, while others continued southeast to Pakistan and India. The slow migration did not arrive in northern India until about 1500 BCE. In India, the Indo-Europeans are sometimes called the Aryans.

Some people have disputed this arrival of the Indo-Europeans, however, the spoken language that these Indo-European people brought to India, recorded in early writings, is very similar to other Indo-European languages such as Greek and Latin. There are many examples of similar words between the languages spoken in these areas. In addition, some DNA evidence supports the arrival of the Indo-Europeans to these regions. However, this is a theory of history that some historians don't agree with. There could be other explanations for the similarities in the development of languages and culture.

In addition to their spoken language, the Indo-Europeans may have brought their religious beliefs with them to India. The stories and beliefs of were recorded in a collection of stories and songs called the Vedas. There are many historians that believe the Hindu religion actually began in the Indus River Valley civilization, but other historians believe the Indo-Europeans may have brought some of these beliefs that eventually formed what we think of as Hinduism. The Vedas were first written down in a language called Sanskrit. Early Sanskrit was a spoken language that was written down in different writing systems that developed later on such as Devanagari--the early form of Hindi (picture on right), India's main language today. Indo-Europeans also brought the domesticated horse into South Asia-this suggests the Indo-Europeans were at least semi-nomadic.

The Indo-Europeans first settled along the Indus River, in the same place where the Indus Valley people had lived. They settled down and mixed with the local Indian people. They lived there and eventually expanded throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It was at this time that the caste system got started in India. It is believed that the Indo-Europeans had a similar division of their society, but historians don't agree about how the caste system originated. The caste system is the permanent division of people into certain levels within society. Each level or caste has particular jobs such as merchant, warrior, or priest.

Castes were very important to people's identities. There were four major castes, but there was another group below the four castes known as Dalits or Untouchables. Untouchables usually did the worst jobs, like cleaning up people's poop from the gutters, collecting garbage, and dealing with dead bodies. The lowest of the castes was the Sudras - the servants and farmhands who did not own their own business or their own land, and who had to work for other people. The largest number of people belonged to this caste. Above them were the Vaisyas, or farmers and traders, who owned their own farms or businesses. Above these people were the Kshatriyas, or warriors. The most powerful caste was the Brahmins (pictured below), the priests and other leaders. Many historians believe that when the Indo-Europeans arrived they treated the native Indus Valley people as the Untouchables.

There were also dozens of smaller groups within each castes. Different areas of South Asia also had different local castes. There were very strict rules about how people from different castes had to interact. People who came from different castes could not eat together. Usually people from one caste did not marry or make friends with people from another caste.

Untouchables were not even allowed inside temples. They were viewed as being "polluted" compared to Brahmins who were "pure". People literally didn't want to touch them since they were so "polluted". They were often not allowed to live near other groups or drink from the same well as others. If a Dalit broke these rules, they could be beaten in the streets or even killed. This horrible treatment often pushed them to the edges of society.

Today, the caste system is outlawed by the modern Indian constitution, and in urban areas most people ignore the caste traditions. However, in traditional rural areas caste divisions still exist. The developing Indian culture of the Indo-European mixed with native Indus Valley people began to grow quickly. Their civilization spread from the Indus River Valley to the Ganges River. Similar to other civilizations, kingdoms developed as the territory expanded.

Indian Kindoms and Foreign Invasions

For about 1000 years the Indo-Europeans and native Indians mixed and migrated throughout the the northern part of the region. Cities began to grow in number, and size and by 600 BCE these slowly developed into 16 different kingdoms called Maha Janapadas. It was during this time period that Siddhartha Gautama gave up his title as a prince to search for truth and an end to suffering. Siddhartha was the founder of Buddhism and the story goes that, on his rare trips out of the royal palace, he noticed most people suffering through life. He also grew tired to the priests who controlled society. He gave up his royal life and started a quest to find real truth. After years of searching, he achieved "enlightenment" and became known as the Buddha or "enlightened one". The Buddha traveled throughout South Asia and taught others his new ideas-these teachings became known as the religion of .

Another religion called also developed during this time. Both of these new religions clearly developed from in the same way Christianity and clearly developed from . These new religions were a rebellion against cultural ideas such as the caste system and importance of priests in religion. Some of the first significant architecture in South Asia also came from these new religions. Since many of the building of the Indus Valley have been lost to erosion, Buddhist architecture has become India's most famous architecture. The first development is called a stupa. A stupa (below, left picture) is a mound-like structure that contains the ashes and relics of a loved Buddhist leader. Later, the stupa transformed into a new Buddhist structure called a pagoda. A Pagoda (below, right picture) usually has many levels or "tiers" of roofs. It is also a Buddhist temple. Today Buddhist pagodas can be found all over China, Japan and Southeast Asia.

In 520 BCE, the Persians invaded and took control of the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. This conquest was under the mighty Persian leader Darius the Great. Persia controlled this region for about 200 years until Alexander the Great invaded South Asia. Alexander and his armies were far from home and completely exhausted from years of constant war as they rampaged toward the east. It was in India that Alexander's army finally refused to fight, and Alexander the Great was forced to return to Greece. The pattern of Persia conquest followed by Greek conquest occurred in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Iraq (Mesopotamia), and Ancient India. The only ancient civilization that didn't suffer from the Persian and Greek conquest is ancient China. This is mainly due the the barriers of geography.

Ancient China is separated from these other areas of civilization by vast deserts and high mountains. These obstacles are very difficult to pass even in today's society. This is the main reason that China developed in a unique way. The Silk Road trade route between China and the the rest of the world, over a 1000 years later would finally link all four major civilization areas.

The Persians and Greeks entered South Asia through the Khyber Pass, as did the Indo-Europeans, during their migration into South Asia. The Persians greatly influenced the style of government in India and some Greeks remained in northwest Pakistan and influenced the culture to this day, although the religion of Hinduism has had the greatest influence in India. The impact of the Indus Valley is not completely understood, but surely time and archeology will tell.

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Ancient India | Ancient History For Kids

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Ancient India is often called Harappa and actually was in modern-day Pakistan. There are many mysteries around Ancient India and there are very few artifacts compared to other ancient civilizations.

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Five thousand (5,000) years ago, the ancient Egyptian made their home at the mouth of the Nile River, where the Nile runs into the Mediterranean Sea. It was a wonderful place to live. The soil was rich. Food was plentiful. They were surrounded by desert, which helped to keep them safe from intruders, while the Nile kept their world green.

The ancient Egyptians believed in over 2,000 gods! They were not afraid of their gods, not most of them anyway. They understood they could not always get everything they prayed for. But, when their prayers were not answered, they might give the statue of a god in the temple a little whack with a reed to let the gods know they were quite disappointed.

The ancient Egyptians believed in curses and omens and magical powers, all of which were an important part of their daily life and religion. They bought spells in the marketplace to increase their luck, to change their fate, and to keep themselves safe.

They believed science and magic were intertwined. They would chant a magical spell they bought in the marketplace and swallow medicine they bought from a different vendor to solve the same problem. The thing is, this often solved their problem, although it was probably the medicine. When the ancient Greeks and then the Romans came to Egypt, they were amazed at how advanced the Egyptians were in the sciences, especially in astronomy, mathematics, and cures.

The ancient Egyptians also believed in an afterlife. A popular family outing was visiting the family tomb with armloads of grave goods they had made, things they might need in their afterlife to make their eternity comfortable and fun. The ancient Egyptians believed that after you died, your Ka, your spirit, flew off to enjoy endless, perfect days along a magical Nile River. At night, your Ba, your night spirit, returned to your tomb, because even mummies need a good night's sleep.

The ancient Egyptians were fascinating people, and thanks to the movies are often misunderstood. The ancient Egyptians were not in love with death. They were in love with life! They loved poetry and tall tales and stories. They shivered at curses and danced at festivals. They loved their kids. They loved their families. They loved their life along their beloved Nile River, crocodiles and all.

Come meet the clever, creative ancient Egyptians. We think you'll like them.

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Mr. Donn and Maxie's Ancient History PowerPoints Series
Written by Lin & Don Donn,
illustrated by Phillip Martin, Published by Good Year Books

Mr. Donn and Maxie's Always Something You Can Use Series
Written by Lin & Don Donn, Published by Good Year Books

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Ancient Egypt for Kids and Teachers - Daily Life, Religion, Government, Inventions, Achievements, and more, for grades 5-9, middle school - Ancient Egypt for Kids

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Five thousand (5,000) years ago, the ancient Egyptian made their home at the mouth of the Nile River, where the Nile runs into the Mediterranean Sea. It was a wonderful place to live. The soil was rich. Food was plentiful. They were surrounded by desert, which helped to keep them safe from intruders, while the Nile kept their world green.

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Join us, ancient explorers, as we head back 5,000 years through history to discover fascinating facts about Ancient Egypt, from its ancient beginnings to Egypt today...
Discover facts about Ancient Egypt below or skip to our facts about modern-day Egypt.

Facts about Ancient Egypt

1) Most Ancient Egyptian pyramids were built as tombs for pharaohs (rulers of Ancient Egypt) and their families. To date, over 130 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt.

2) The afterlife was incredibly important to the Egyptians. They believed that by preserving a dead person's body - which they did through the process of mummification - their soul would live on in the afterlife forever.

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3) The Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. This incredible structure weighs as much as 16 Empire State buildings!

4) Both Egyptian men and women wore make-up. The eye paint was usually green (made from copper) or black (made from lead). As well as offering protection from the sun, the Egyptians believed make-up had magical healing powers, too!

5) Unwrapped, the bandages of an Ancient Egyptian mummy could stretch for 1.6km. Yikes!

6) The Egyptian alphabet contained more than 700 hieroglyphs! Uncover the meaning behind these ancient symbols by checking out our awesome hieroglyphics feature.

7) Ancient Egyptians believed in more than 2,000 deities! They had gods for everything, from dangers to chores! Each had different responsibilities and needed to be worshipped so that life could be kept in balance.

Did you know that we have a FREE downloadable Ancient Egypt primary resource? Great for teachers, homeschoolers and parents alike!

8) Cats were considered sacred animals by the Ancient Egyptians. It's thought that most families kept a cat as a pet, which they believed would bring the household good luck!

9) Love playing board games with your pals? Well, gang, so did the Ancient Egyptians! One popular game was , which was played for over 2,000 years! The game involved throwing sticks (in the same way we throw dice) to see how many squares to move your piece forward on the board.

10) The Ancient Egyptians invented lots of things we still use today, such as paper, pens, locks and keys and - believe it or not - toothpaste!

If you enjoyed these facts about Ancient Egypt, make sure you check out our other Ancient Egypt pages! Discover the Nile River, figure out hieroglyphics and learn about Ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses.

Country fact file: Egypt today

Incredible ancient monuments, scorching deserts and bustling cities - this ancient country is now a sprawling, modern landscape! Read on to learn about the Egypt of today...

Egyptian flag

OFFICIAL NAME: Arab Republic of Egypt
FORM OF GOVERNMENT: Republic
CAPITAL: Cairo
POPULATION: 87, 562, 261
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic
MONEY: Egyptian pound, guinay
AREA: 1,001,449 square kilometres
MAJOR MOUNTAIN RANGES: Eastern Highlands
MAJOR RIVER: Nile
FLAG:

Map of Egypt

Egypt: geography and landscape

Without the Nile River, all of Egypt would be desert. Only about an 2.5cm of rain falls throughout Egypt each year. But each summer, the Nile river rises because of rains at its source, far to the south in Ethiopia. When this happens, floods cover the river's valleys, leaving sediments needed for trees, plants and crops to grow.

Egypt is often divided into two sections - Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. The sections are named this way because the Nile flows from south to north. The river empties into the Mediterranean Sea, on the country's north coast.

Southern Egypt's landscape contains low mountains and desert. Northern Egypt has wide valleys near the Nile, and desert to the east and west. North of Cairo (Egypt's capital city) is the sprawling, triangular Nile River Delta. This fertile land is completely covered with farms.

Egypt's incredible nature

Egypt is home to a wide variety of animals and plants, including cheetahs, hyenas, crocodiles and cobras. The best places to see Egypt's wildlife are in its 21 protected regions, which include oases, deserts, mountains, coastal areas, river islands and wetlands.

Egyptians have always been close to the natural world. The ancient Egyptians left paintings and carvings (which can still be seen today!) of large animals like elephants, hippos, leopards and cheetahs. These animals were once common in Egypt, but they are now rare or extinct because of hunting and habitat loss.

The history of Egypt

The first people to live on the banks of the Nile were hunters and fishermen, who settled there over 8,000 years ago. They learned to grow crops and raise animals, and they began to build villages and towns. They traded with their neighbours and learned to sail boats. By 3000 B.C., a civilisation was established.

Around 3100 B.C., the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt were unified under a powerful king, later called a pharaoh. These kings built huge pyramids, temples and other impressive monuments. They also conquered other lands.

By 1000 B.C., Egypt had split into smaller parts and the kingdom was in decline. Strong neighbours attacked and took over Egyptian territory - in 31 B.C., Egypt fell under Roman control and centuries later, in A.D. 640, Muslim warriors took over Egypt. These Arab forces ruled Egypt for several centuries and founded the modern capital, Cairo.

In 1882, the British invaded and occupied Egypt. The British wanted control of the Suez Canal, which linked the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea and greatly shortened the sailing trip from Asia to Europe. The British stayed until Egypt declared independence in 1952.

Egyptian people and culture

About 90 percent of Egyptians are Muslim, which means they are followers of the Islam religion. About ten percent of Egyptians are Copts, one of the oldest branches of the Christian religion.

Egypt's population is growing rapidly. This puts strain on Egypt's resources, since most people live in a narrow strip of land along the Nile River. Having so many people in such a small area causes overcrowding everywhere, from schools and hospitals to apartment buildings and public transport.

Children are highly valued in Egypt, especially in rural areas where they help on family farms. Children are also expected to look after their parents in their old age.

Egyptian government and economy

Egypt's geography, population, history and military strength have made it highly influential in the region. Egypt is a democratic republic, although some critics claim that it is not truly democratic. Until 2005, there was never more than one presidential candidate to vote for.

Egypt's most valuable resources are oil and gas, which are exported to other countries. Other exports include metals, textiles, livestock and chemical products. Tourism is also an important part of Egypt's economy, with visitors flocking to see the famous ancient monuments and to enjoy the country's beautiful beaches.

Want to learn more about awesome ancient cultures? Then check out our Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece features. Plus, discover more amazing facts from around the world in National Geographic Kids magazine!

Image credits: Egypt map: National Geographic Maps. Mosque in Egypt: Rraheb, Dreamstime. Man pouring juice, Cairo, Egypt: Jackmalipan, Dreamstime. Outdoor cafe in Cairo, Egypt: Jackmalipan, Dreamstime. Sphinx and pyramid at Giza, Egypt: Javarman, Dreamstime. All other photographs and illustrations: Getty Images UK

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10 Facts About Ancient Egypt | National Geographic Kids

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Discover incredible facts about Ancient Egypt with Nat Geo Kids! Learn about the country's ancient & modern history, pyramids and more...

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Exploring Egyptian Civilization for Kids: Ancient Egyptian Culture Documentary - FreeSchool