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- DNA making an exact copy of itself.
- Mutation = A mistake in DNA replication.
*Not all mutations are bad.
- DNA always forms in the 5' to 3' direction.
- Carbons are numbered 1' to 5'.
- Strands are opposite/anti-parallel.

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- Humans have 46 chromosomes in their bodies.
- Chromatin = Long, thin, and uncoiled DNA.
- Chromosomes = DNA wrapped around a protein.

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1. When your cells divide.
2. When you grow.
3. Replace cells old or worn out.
4. To fix broken bones.
5. When you get a concussion or bruises.
6. To fix cuts, blisters, or wounds.

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- Helicase; unwinds + zips DNA.
- Primase; tells the DNA polymerase where to start.
- DNA Polymerase; matchmaker, proofreader, and gets ride of primer.
- Ligase; acts like glue.

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DNA - Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
*In all organisms
*Each individual has unique DNA (not clones or identical twins, though).

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3 Parts
1. 5 Carbon Sugar
2. 1 Phosphate Group
3. 1 of 4 Nitrogen Bases

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- "Outsides of the ladder" alternates sugar and phosphate.
- Covalent bonds connect sugar and phosphate.
- Sugars attach to the bases with covalent bonds
- 2 bases (1 big, 1 small) make up the "rungs of the ladder".

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A = Adenine
T = Thymine
G = Guanine
C - Cytosine
- A with T (Double Hydrogen Bond)
"Always Together"
- G with C (Triple Hydrogen Bond)
"Good Couple"

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Purine; Adenine and Guanine (Bigger)
2 C.N. Rings
Pyrimidine; Thymine and Cytosine (Smaller)
1 C.N. Ring

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Base Pairing Rules
- Adenine + Thymine amounts are the same.
- Guanine + Cytosine amounts are the same.
- Purine Amount = Pyrimidine Amount

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- "Discovered" the structure of the DNA in 1953.
- They won a Nobel Prize for their "work" in 1962.
- Named the model they "found" the Double-Helix (twisted ladder).

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- Did the work to find the structure of DNA.
- Was exposed to a lot of radiation while finding Photo 51 (revealing the structure of DNA) which was stolen by Wilkins and shown to Watson and Crick.
- Was never honored or credited since she died early of cancer.

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See the structure of DNA. Image by Madeleine Price Ball (Madprime) in the Wikimedia Commons

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- A permanent change in DNA caused by mutagens.
- Mutagens can be viruses, high body temperatures, chemical exposure, or radiation exposure.

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- No effect
- Beneficial
- Genetic disorder
- Cancer
*Silent Mutations - No effect due to no amino acid change.

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- Cystic Fibrosis; Single base pair change causes sticky and thick mucus build-up in the lungs.
- Sickle Cell Anemia; Single base pair change causes red blood cells to be sharp and misshapen, making blood-flow a painful experience.

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Continuous
1. DNA unwinds and unzips.
2. Primase makes a tiny RNA primer for direction.
3. DNA polymerase pairs up new nucleotides with the old strand.

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In the lagging strand since the DNA polymerase lays down new nucleotides away from the replication fork, a bunch of little fragments are made. The DNA polymerase needs to keep going back, making multiple strand instead of 1 single strand.

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Discontinous
1. Helicase unwinds and unzips.
2. Primase makkes a tiny RNA primer.
3. DNA polymerase lays down new nucleotides.
4. Okazaki strands are formed.
5. Polymerase gets rid of primers.
6. Ligase acts like glue and connects the primase.

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- 2 identical DNA strands.
- Each strand is 1/2 old and 1/2 new.
- Semi-conservative.

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- Protein Synthesis is making new proteins.
- This process includes 2 parts; transcription and translation.

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- To "write across".
- Happens 1st in the nucleus.
- Includes splitting the DNA, making mRNA, and leaving the nucleus to go to the ribosome.

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- To "change the language".
- Happens 2nd in the ribosome.
- Includes the reading of the mRNA, matching up the codons and anti-codons, and assembling the amino acid chain.

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1. 3 Bases in DNA = Triplet
2. 3 Bases in mRNA = Codon
3. 3 Bases in tRNA = Anti-codon

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- tRNA are specific.
- It carries the anti-codon and only 1 amino acid.

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- There are 64 possible combinations of codons.
- There are only 20 possible amino acids.
- Multiple codons can code for 1 amino acid.

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When these codons are read, the process starts/stops.
AUG = Start
UAA = Stop
UAG = Stop
UGA = Stop

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The amino acid chain makes up a completed polypeptide chain. The completed polypeptide chain is what makes up a protein.

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This online quiz is called Protein Synthesis Labeling. It was created by member mbrawley and has 11 questions.