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Muhammad Sheroz
Lahore, Pakistan

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SUCCESSFULLY FLIPPING THE ESL CLASSROOM
FOR LEARNER AUTONOMY

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Autonomy in Language Learning and Teaching

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MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING: A SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF IMPLEMENTATION STUDIES 1994–2012

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Learner autonomy video

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E-mail me: ahern2learn@gmail.com Watch out for my blog. Coming soon. Learner Autonomy by Jim Ahern. Kilkenny, Ireland.

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Learner autonomy

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Learner autonomy

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Learner autonomy Self Assessment Paul Kelsall

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BLOGGING PROMOTING LEARNER AUTONOMY AND INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE THROUGH STUDY ABROAD

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Conceptualising learner autonomy involves two factors:

An autonomous learner has developed the capacity to take at least some control over their learning; and
The learning environment provides opportunities for the learner to take control of their learning.

Developing capacity requires a set of personal qualities: confidence, motivation, taking and accepting responsibility, and ability to take initiative. It also involves a set of skills: academic, intellectual, personal and interpersonal.

Within the context of Higher Education, effective autonomous learning requires the learner to have an appropriate conceptual stance towards their learning, which leads to an appropriate orientation to learning. In addition, learning is a social activity, and socialising their learning requires learners to recognise the benefits of working with others and to be able to share and negotiate with other learners. The employability agenda within HE also requires learners to develop appropriate professional skills and the diverse nature of the student body requires learners to recognise difference. This involves developing tolerance, empathy and understanding of other values and cultures; and to be able to explain, discuss and negotiate in an acceptable manner.

The Sheffield Hallam definition of learner autonomy starts with the premise that an autonomous learner takes responsibility for his/her own learning. In doing this:

They can identify:
- their learning goals (what they need to learn)
- their learning processes (how they will learn it)
- how they will evaluate and use their learning

they have well-founded conceptions of learning

they have a range of learning approaches and skills

they can organize their learning

they have good information processing skills

they are well motivated to learn

Students come to University from diverse social, cultural and educational backgrounds, which influence their expectations of Higher Education. One factor that can inhibit their learning and success is the mismatch between their expectations and those of the programme. It is important that students develop an appropriate conceptual stance towards their learning. This involves understanding what is meant by 'higher learning', as well as accepting responsibility for their own learning, developing high level intellectual skills, including reflection and metacognition, and understanding and developing their own approaches to learning.

Although it is necessary for students to reflect continuously on their learning and conceptions, a key time to engage with students on these is on arrival into university, so as to encourage effective orientations and deep approaches to learning, and to develop a culture of reflection and engagement which will support them through their university studies.

Engaged learners are active in their learning, in both formal and informal environments. They have a natural sense of curiosity about their subject and its wider context. They demonstrate a balance of vocational, academic, personal and social motivations to learn, and can distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to learn. Motivation can be encouraged by socialising the learning; developing effective working relationships; offering choice in learning goals and processes; providing positive feedback; introducing realistic challenges and offering the opportunities to develop self-confidence.

The Standing Conference of University Librarians (SCONUL) describes the seven pillars of information literacy as the ability to:

1. recognize a need for information
2. distinguish ways in which the information 'gap' may be addressed
3. construct strategies for locating information
4. locate and access information
5. compare and evaluate information obtained from different sources
6. organize, apply and communicate information to others in ways appropriate
7. synthesize and build upon existing information, contributing to the creation of new knowledge

In order for students to be able to operate autonomously, it is important for them to develop an approach to managing their learning; managing themselves; and managing relationships in ways that maximise their ability to succeed in their academic lives. This can be encapsulated intuitively in the notions of personal effectiveness; reflections on the nature and degree of personal autonomy; and informed agency in the context of a complex academic environment. For many students, this can be seen as an evolving capability in relation to the different demands and challenges presented by their learning experiences and learning goals.

Specifically, this will involve students developing effective study, planning, problem solving and time and project management skills; demonstrating focus and resilience; being able to balance social, work and learning needs; and having the metacognition to balance the demands of assessment, self-assessment and evaluation of their learning.

EBL represents a shift away from passive methods, which involve the transmission of knowledge to students, to more facilitative teaching methods through which students are expected to construct their own knowledge and understanding by engaging in supported processes of enquiry, i.e. learning in 'research mode'. It is a natural form of learning, borne out of our innate sense of curiosity and desire to explore and understand. It is generically applicable, and has grown from modelling learning in a number of subjects. The learning is driven by a process of enquiry or investigation, often involving complex, intriguing 'real-life' stimuli. It is student-centred, requires active participation, and supports the connections between theory and practice. It is a supported process that develops a range of skills in students:

Academic: Research and information skills
Professional: Team, leadership and inter-personal skill; communication skills, project management, entrepreneurship, idea generation and innovation.
Personal: Taking and accepting responsibility, planning, balancing creativity with resilience

More information to follow

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centres for excellence in teaching and learning

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Conceptualising learner autonomy involves two factors: An autonomous learner has developed the capacity to take at least some control over their learning; and The learning environment provides opportunities for the learner to take control of their learning. Developing capacity requires a set of personal qualities: confidence, motivation, taking and accepting responsibility, and ability to take initiative.

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Learner Autonomy

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321 Tools that Can Effectively Enhance Technology Use in Teaching

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321 FREE Educational Technology Tools for Teachers

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321 Free Educational Technology Tools for Teachers

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Mobile Learning

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Last year, I was surfing Pinterest with the intent to find some interesting ideas to implement into my AP World History class. I came across several articles where individuals had used the classic tales animated by Walt Disney to encourage student learning. After thinking on this I had an epiphany: What if I could have students use their historical knowledge gained throughout the course to pick out the inaccuracies in Disney films? This had the potential to be an interesting project for students to explore a movie of their choosing and develop a polished presentation to teach their peers about the selected time period and region. I wanted to create an assignment in which students harnessed and nurtured their creative abilities but also accomplished the goals.

After extensive planning, I was able to develop a project that embodied the analysis of historical context, a fun animated classic, and also primary sources. The parameters for the culminating project were as follows:

1. Summarize the story as portrayed by Disney.

2. Determine the origins of the fairy tale. Where did the fairy tale originate in the world? How true to the tale did Disney stay?

3. Determine the setting of the movie (time and place) and whether the architecture is appropriate. (i.e.: Is Mulan set in Han China when the Forbidden City was not yet constructed?) Is the clothing congruent with the setting? How accurate are the appearance of the characters? Are there any geographic misrepresentations? (i.e.: Does Hercules mention visiting Mt. Kilimanjaro in Greece?)

4. Determine what was going on the world at this point in history. Consider all events globally and identify at least one major event from each continent (except Antarctica).

5. What historical inaccuracies can you find in the movie? Aside from talking animals and the magical powers of wands and genies, what fallacies are represented in the movie?

6. Select two primary sources from someone who would have been a contemporary during the time and in the location of the movie's setting. If Beauty and Beast takes place in Revolutionary France, you can use a letter from Robespierre. This source should be connected in some way to the movie. If you use Robespierre's letter, perhaps you want to relate it to Gaston in his attempt to raid the castle.

As with any new project, there is always some trepidation as to whether the outcome will be as desired. There were several what if that flowed through my mind. "What if the students really just see this as an excuse to watch a movie and really do not analyze it as I envision? What if the students just decide to turn in poster paper? What if I have not prepared my students to think about these movies in a global context and really analyze the movies? Have I really thought through any possible hiccups? With so little guidance into what the final product should look like, what should I expect?" Because my students had worked so hard to prepare for the AP test, I figured I would wing it. Trial and error, right?

At the end of this project, I was more than impressed. Of course, there are always modifications to be made but essentially all of my students created final presentation products that were polished, analytical, and comprehensive. I received some Prezi presentations, video compilations, elaborate PowerPoints, and even a PowToon. Several of my students reported that they learned more from this project than any other assignment in their history classes. Others reported the freedom they were given to search out resources and to create a product in a format other than a written report was refreshing.

I consider every lesson a learning experience no matter how many times it has been implemented. This lesson with a select group of students has taught me that the studies supporting project based learning encourages a deeper learning model. I have also learned, that despite our best intentions to maintain a structured environment, there is something beneficial about letting students guide their own learning. We as teachers all know that our students learn more when they are interested in a topic, but letting them drive their own learning takes this to the next level. Granted, I consider this assignment a success and plan to implement it again this spring, I am still considering taking this project even further into the redefinition category (for you SAMR fans). Perhaps, it is time to engage my students in a digital collaboration platform such as Google Drive or even the Microsoft 365.

References:

Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Estrada, V., and Freeman, A. (2015). NMC horizon report: 2015 K-12 edition. Retrieved from http://cdn.nmc.org/media/2015-nmc-horizon-report-HE-EN.pdf.

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Project-Based Learning Using Disney Movies | Edutopia

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Last year, I was surfing Pinterest with the intent to find some interesting ideas to implement into my AP World History class. I came across several articles where individuals had used the classic tales animated by Walt Disney to encourage student learning.

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Learner Autonomy with Technology

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How to use gamification in eLearning

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There's a lot of discussion about gamification in eLearning at the moment. But what is gamification and what does it mean in an eLearning context? Does it imply we are all going to learn new health and safety rules by playing a version of Angry Birds?

Not necessarily. In our view, the essence of gamification is taking the positive motivational aspects and challenges of the game-playing world and allying them with good learning content and experience.

In many ways, good eLearning has used gamification for ages. For example, the challenge of multi-branched scenarios harnesses the incentives of game-playing and decision-making, but combines them with the context of real work situations. Simple click-to-reveal interactions have gamified elements of exploration and reward within them.

To simplify what is gamification for eLearning, we've boiled it down into a number of key elements which we've called "The Four C's": Creative, Challenge, Control and C ompetition.
Creative: create a story, characters and plot.
People like stories. Learners like to learn from stories. Many successful games have a strong narrative, great characterization and an intriguing plot. For learning, when you can relate a story into a real workplace situation, the learning has a deeper resonance. For example, what appeals more?

"The basics of manual handling".

or

"It's Arjan's first day in the warehouse. Help him make the right decisions to handle all the loads which are waiting in the warehouse for him".

Challenge: Give learners a challenge.

Games challenge the gamer to take some action and progress. Challenges can come in a variety of shapes and forms. We've separated out the elements of challenges into a few distinct parts:

An important element of gamification is the players have to make decisions, which control their progress through the game. For eLearning, do the same and encourage the learner to make decisions, give them questions, quizzes and scenarios, which determine how they progress through the course. For example, selecting the wrong answer to a question could either return the participant to the start of a section, or it could decrease the time left for a challenge or it could lower their pot of overall rewards.

A lot of games use levels to challenge the player to progress. For eLearning, construct the course so that instead of seeing a series of sections, the student sees a series of levels but more complex levels are only accessible ("unlocked") after completion of the initial ones. This structure gives an idea of progression, advancement and momentum. So in our manual handling course, our first level could cover basic lifting posture with questions asking the student to help Arjan identify the three key points of posture. If they beat that section, they progress to the "Handling awkward loads challenge" and so on until they get to the ultimate "Fork lift truck challenge".

The rewards systems for games are varied but the challenge is for the gamer to progress using the reward system. These systems can range from a simple score-based measure through to the acquisition of materials (for example, gold, kudos, trading currency). For eLearning, accumulating points or rewards is another method of adding momentum and progression to your course. Simple mechanisms like using the cumulative point scores from quizzes, questions or scenarios are easy components to use within most eLearning authoring packages. Rather than presenting the quiz results as a pass or fail type score, convert them to awards, badges or even just amass the results of all the exercises into an overall "High score", which is shown throughout the course.

Adding a timer to events, particularly when a decision needs to be made or some questions need to be answered, adds excitement and dynamism to an event. Under time pressure, the student may not have an opportunity to consider all the factors for a "right" answer mirroring real life and real work situations, increasing the effectiveness of the learning.

Control: Allow learners to take control.

Giving your students (or "gamers") control means that you provide the participant with choices over where they go and the paths they take. In our manual handling example, we could give Arjan the choice of which load to tackle first and then select from a range of equipment or an option to seek advice from a range of different people (phone a friend).

Control also comes in giving gamers the choice to quit, restart, try again or continue where they left off so they feel more in control of the experience. Well-constructed eLearning can give learners an element of control by using menus, optional material and skip ahead navigation. Try to stay away from creating a learning experience where the student is lead down a single path and their control is limited to the next and previous button.

Competition: Use the motivation of competition.

An important element of game play is the competitive element of trying to achieve a high score, a badge or some other reward within the game. Some games go further and provide leader boards visible to all players. We can use these features within eLearning too. That could be an external list of achievements such as an integrated leader board for your course. For example, the leader board could show the top 5 scores from all the manual handlers in the warehouse. The participants are motivated by the kudos of high achievement which is displayed to their peer group.

However, while this motivation works well with extrovert types (for example, within a typical sales environment), it might be less successful for a course appealing to a more introverted type of audience. Having said that, there are other less obvious ways of incorporating external rewards and many of them don't need to be automatically generated. For example, you could provide recognition of achievement by having a small color-coded lapel badge that people wear that shows they are a "Manual handling hero".

All these gamification elements can be incorporated into your eLearning course providing your learner with fun and a sense of accomplishment. Once you combine those elements with a solid understanding of your learning points, you can build learning experiences which are both valuable from a learning perspective and enjoyable for students. Most importantly, if you get the design right, students will want to try, and keep trying the course!

Do you need some inspiration for gamification in eLearning? Check out this eLearning Heroes blog.

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There's a lot of discussion about gamification in eLearning at the moment. But what is gamification and what does it mean in an eLearning context? Does it imply we are all going to learn new health and safety rules by playing a version of Angry Birds? Not necessarily.

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99 Ways You Should Be Using Facebook in Your Classroom

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Back in 2009, we wrote a popular post, 100 Ways You Should Be Using Facebook in Your Classroom. Now almost three years later, educators are still finding great ideas for putting Facebook to work on our list. But at the same time, Facebook has changed so much, and the site has even more to offer for the classroom. So we've compiled a fresh batch of ways to make Facebook work in your classroom, some tried and true, and others that have evolved with Facebook. Read on, and you'll find a wealth of resources, assignments, and amazing uses for Facebook in any type of classroom.

Resources on Facebook

Facebook is so much more than vapid status updates. You can find resources for research, which all graduate students in master's degree programs know the extent of research needed on any given topic, connect with local (and international) public figures, and find out what's new and interesting in museums.

1. Ask for information: Instead of trusting Wikipedia, ask the crowd on Facebook. One kindergarten teacher asked parents to research seeds and got great information about the largest seed in the world according to the Guinness Book of World Records.

2. Attend remote lectures: Using Facebook, you can tune into remote lectures and presentations from around the world.

3. Museums and more: Help your students follow along with local and international museums, art galleries, exhibits, and more for enriched learning on Facebook.

4. Firsthand research: Students can connect with family members for genealogy assignments, discuss issues with local celebrities and more through Facebook.

5. Follow politicians: If your class is studying the current election, use Facebook to follow politicians on the local, state, and national scale. You can even ask students to interact with the candidates, posting questions and getting feedback.

6. Learning games: Plenty of games are on Facebook, and many of them are actually educational. Adopt Facebook crosswords, math games, and more as a reward in your classroom.

7. Public polling: Students can research and poll friends and family members by simply asking questions on Facebook.

8. Applications: Flashcards, Courses, and more offer easy ways to adopt and create learning tools in your classroom.

Projects & Assignments

Facebook is an interesting platform for learning, and these ideas offer great ways to make the site a part of projects and assignments in your classroom.

Sharing

Give students, parents, and your community something of value by sharing knowledge and resources through the power of Facebook.

1. Import your class blog to Facebook: If your class maintains a blog, be sure to have it shared on Facebook.

2. Ask parents to get involved: Parents can follow along as kids post their projects, and even highlight any insightful resources they may know about.

3. Pet day can get a little less scary: Students with pets that are not quite appropriate for school (like huge pythons or newborn kittens) can still participate, sharing photos of their beloved friend at home.

4. Archived videos: Important lectures, slides, and more can be shared and saved on Facebook.

5. Document class trips: Headed to the zoo? Have your class share the tasks of taking photos, notes, and more to share in a Facebook report on the activity.

6. Highlighting vocabulary: An easy and quick way to fit vocabulary review into study time is posting words and definitions on Facebook.

7. Make graphs out of parent data: Ask parents about household habits, favorite animals, and more, creating graphs in your classroom that you can share on Facebook.

8. Explore Questions: Facebook offers a Questions app, which is clearly useful for the classroom and allows teachers to ask questions about photos, topics, and more with responses from students.

9. Archive discussions: Facebook is a great place to link to and archive classroom slides, discussions, and more that students can reference if they missed class or need to review.

10. Posting educational content: Teachers can post educational videos and links for concepts that are currently being discussed in class.

Collaboration & Discussion

Students in bachelor's and master's degree programs alike, educational professionals, and even parents can get together for collaboration and discussion through Facebook.

Classroom Management & Organization

These ideas offer great ways to enrich your classroom with personal connection, reminders, and tools for organization.

Apps & Groups

These Facebook resources can help you when it comes to sharing documents, college resources, books, and more.

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100 Ways to Use Facebook in the Classroom - OnlineCollege.org

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Back in 2009, we wrote a popular post, 100 Ways You Should Be Using Facebook in Your Classroom. Now almost three years later, educators are still finding great ideas for putting Facebook to work on our list. But at the same time, Facebook has changed so much, and the site has even more to offer for the classroom.

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6 Mobile Learning Benefits: The Mobile Learning Revolution

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The proliferation of mobile devices is changing many aspects of our lives, from how we work and communicate to how we learn. In fact, the rise of smart devices such as cellphones and tablets has sparked a mobile learning revolution. And there is ample evidence that mobile platforms support quality eLearning experiences, revealing a plethora of mobile learning benefits.

According to Cisco, at the close of 2014, the number of mobile-connected devices exceeded the entire human population of the earth. As a result of this mobile explosion, it's predicted the U.S. market for mobile learning will grow from $7.98 billion in 2015 to $37.6 billion by 2020.

Current estimates already show that roughly 47% of organizations in the U.S. are now using mobile devices as powerful eLearning solutions in their employee training programs. That number is set to rise quickly because mobile learning is extremely effective.

For organizations looking for new and better ways to improve online employee training, here's a look at how mobile is revolutionizing eLearning.

The Rise Of The Millennials

As Baby Boomers speed toward retirement and Gen Xers approach middle age, a vast and younger generation is entering the workforce - the Millennials. Raised on technology, this employee demographic is predicted to make up 50% of the global workforce by 2020, and they are redefining how employees work and learn. Forget PCs. Millennial employees want to communicate and learn on smartphones and tablets. This has resulted in the adoption of Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) programs in many organizations.

The Shift In Learning Patterns

Surveys show that 58% of employees would be more likely to use their company's online training tools if the content was broken up into multiple shorter lessons. And while that statistic may come as a surprise to many employers, it shouldn't. Today's learners prefer multimedia -videos, podcasts, audio- to keep them engaged in a learning environment. They also want to be able to learn on the go.

Mobile devices are the ideal platforms for employees to view shorter, bite-sized lessons quickly and conveniently, from anywhere and at any time. And the best part is that shorter lessons have been shown to increase employee engagement and content retention. In fact, studies show that making required training available on employee's mobile devices can lead to an increase in productivity of up to 40%.

Technological Advancements

It takes technology to implement mobile learning. And fortunately there are a number of technological tools available today that can seamlessly bring employee training to the screens of mobile devices. Among these technologies are:

HTML5.
This technology allows online learning professionals to create training courses for a wide range of platforms, including mobile. HTML5 also allows for the creation of custom mobile apps, games, instructional videos, informal learning activities, and advanced simulated learning environments that can takeeLearning solutions to a whole new level.

xAPI.
People learn at different speeds, and xAPI technology allows for that. It also helps eLearning be more visually engaging. And xAPI advanced tracking capabilities help trainers to monitor the progress of individual learners. Learning programs that utilize xAPI also tend to have better overall retention rates.

Responsive Design.
We've all experienced how certain websites that look great on our PCs don't come across so well on our smartphones. And the same would be true of mobile training if it weren't for responsive design technology. Responsive design eliminates the need for apps and downloads to make things look right when going from one device to another. It allows for friendly integration with learning management systems. Responsive design also allows for the "future proofing" of learning content to prevent it from becoming obsolete as mobile technology advances.

6 Mobile Learning Benefits

The main mobile learning benefits are:

1. Learning Flexibility.

Online learning created flexibility by eliminating the need for learning to happen at a set time and a set place. Now mobile takes learning flexibility even further by making instructional content such as videos, podcasts, and other multimedia formats available on smartphones and tablets. What's more, learners have the added flexibility of being able to access this content on their mobile devices whenever and wherever they want.

2. Improved Completion And Retention Rates.

Learning only happens when instructional content is completed and key points are retained. Mobile learning is designed to create engagement, which leads to course completion. And being that mobile learning is also tailored to fit the device usage habits and learning patterns of today's learners, the result is higher rates of retention.

3. Online Learning Communities.

Today's younger employees enjoy collaborating with others in the workplace. And mobile devices are important tools for engaging learners towards the establishment of online learning communities where more effective learning can take place.

4. Learning Οn Multiple Devices.

Employee training needs to be convenient. And technology makes it possible for the same eLearning courses to be available on all devices an employee might interact with on a daily basis, from PCs and laptops to tablets and smartphones.

5. Better Performance.

Employees prefer learning methods that don't disrupt their daily routines. Information must be made easy to access while at work. The result is the creation of an employee learning habit that supports a higher quality of workplace performance.

6. A Clear Path to Learning.

Many of today's mobile learning platforms for organizations are integrated with phone-based learning reminders and organizers. This allows learners to receive ongoing alerts and updates on their courses, which they can check on their smartphones while on the go, anywhere and at any time. Learners can also easily pick up coursework right where they left off, without losing the content they previously studied. This makes for a more personalized learning path than can be achieved in a non-mobile learning platform.

Mobile learning benefits are revolutionizing the eLearning process. As the rapid proliferation of mobile devices continues, more organizations will recognize the competitive advantages that come from leveraging modern technological advancements to create powerful tech-centric learning experiences for their mobile empowered employees.

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6 Mobile Learning Benefits: The Mobile Learning Revolution - eLearning Industry

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The proliferation of mobile devices is changing many aspects of our lives, from how we work and communicate to how we learn. In fact, the rise of smart devices such as cellphones and tablets has sparked a mobile learning revolution. And there is ample evidence that mobile platforms support quality eLearning experiences, revealing a plethora of mobile learning benefits.

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7 Dos And Don'ts Of Mobile Learning

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A report on Mobile Learning at Work by Towards Maturity revealed that 47% of businesses and other organizations already use some sort of mobile devices for training and eLearning activities. With the mobile learning market reaching approximately $8.7 billion in 2015 and showing promise to reach $12.2 billion by 2017, clearly mobile learning is becoming increasingly popular in the online learning ecosystem. So, how do you approach effective mobile learning? There are various different ways; in this article, we cover 7 key dos and don'ts of mobile learning you need to pay attention to.

1. Do Develop Context

Why are you creating a mobile learning module? In mobile learning "context is king". So the first thing that needs to be done when developing a mobile learning program is to identify and understand the context. Is it learning or performance support that you want to provide? What is the goal of the program? Is it the core program or a support module? Once the context is set by identifying the demographic and the goals that need to be achieved, you can start developing your mobile learning program.

2. Do Keep The Navigation Simple

Follow the KISS (Keep It Simple Silly) methodology when you want to develop a great mobile learning program, especially when it comes to the navigation. The user interface has to be simple and easy to navigate. The user should ideally be able to navigate the learning material with one thumb or two thumbs at the most. Instructional Designers have to bear in mind that as the screen size reduces navigation becomes harder as compared to a desktop. So creating proportional layouts and sizable buttons play an important role in creating a great mobile learning course. Additionally, learning providers also need to ensure that they keep the content easily searchable. This can be done by using obvious titles and making sure the menu is simple to navigate.

3. Do Reduce Scrolling

Yes, there has to be a certain amount of scrolling in every mLearning course, but a great mLearning course will keep the scrolling to a minimum. Ensure that the content created for the module does not exceed three scroll length. In the case of a longer module, it makes sense to break up the content into different screens with an identifiable "next" button. Learning providers also have to ensure that they minimize distractions on the screen. For this, they need to keep the low-relevance items such as legal information, copyright notices, or other links that are not key to that module at the bottom of the screen.

4. Don't Increase Information Density

With mobile, everything has to be crisp... even the information. Content in mobile learning has to be bite-sized and segmented keeping in mind memory limitations, battery life, and short attention spans. Having a clear content plan at the beginning of each module helps in making the objectives of the course clear. It also sets the expectation of the learner. Furthermore, you need to consider the overall file size of the course. This will help you make sure it does not compromise the storage capacity of the device, can be easily downloaded, and can be used in both offline and online modes. Small, bite-sized nuggets of information become easier to view, consume, and process, which in turn contribute to the effectiveness of the learning program.

5. Do Use Multimedia

Multimedia elements immediately improve the effectiveness of any learning program and mobile learning is no different to this. However, it is essential to first analyze your target demographic. Then, you need to use only those multimedia elements that will enhance the effectiveness of the program. For example, using video in mobile learning is great, but you need to make sure that the video is not media heavy or too long as that might compromise its consumption. With mobile learning, multimedia should be used to highlight important elements to facilitate information retention and reduce the cognitive load.

6. Don't Go Into The "Push" Mode

Mobile learning programs have to adopt the "receiver" mode rather than the "push" mode. So, the course has to be designed such that it is personalized, the users can self-diagnose what they want to achieve, set their learning pace, and get support when they need it. Instructional Designers creating mobile learning courses thus have to ensure that they create modules that the learners "interact" with. They also need to ensure that they provide the right back-end support to guide and help the learners. While creating these interactions, it is also essential now to include the social angle. Employing game-based learning strategies for assessments and tasks, providing the learners the opportunity to share their results on social media platforms, or enabling the use of social media platforms for discussions etc. also contribute to the success of a mobile learning module.

7. Do Use Mobile Friendly Technology

This is an absolute no-brainer: When developing a course for mobile learning, making it responsive is not an option anymore. You also need to consider both landscape and portrait orientation when designing for mobile. Using technology such as HTML5 that is mobile friendly also helps in making mobile learning modules versatile, robust, faster, and responsive.

As the workforce continues to become increasingly mobile and the millennial generation takes center stage, learning providers need to create mobile learning programs that are engaging and immersive to facilitate better learning. With mobile learning, less is more. Here, with these 7 key dos and don'ts of mobile learning, we look at more granular designs, instructional solidarity, and above all an easy and satisfying user experience.

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7 Dos And Don'ts Of Mobile Learning - eLearning Industry

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A report on Mobile Learning at Work by Towards Maturity revealed that 47% of businesses and other organizations already use some sort of mobile devices for training and eLearning activities. With the mobile learning market reaching approximately $8.7 billion in 2015 and showing promise to reach $12.2 billion by 2017, clearly mobile learning is becoming increasingly popular in the online learning ecosystem.

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Eportfolios: more than a digital resume

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Allison Miller is a regular contributor to eWorks' blog. Allison is passionate about providing learners with the knowledge and skills that they need in order to succeed in the world of work. Here she discusses ePortfolios, often misunderstood to be solely digital CVs, but in reality offering so much more.

Isn't an eportfolio just a digital resume?

The concept of electronic portfolios or eportfolios has been around for nearly 20 years but still many educators grapple with what it is and how they could use it.

One of the main reasons for this is that an eportfolio is both:

a product - a digital collection of evidence which demonstrates a person's learning, and

a process - a strategy to help people manage their own learning (Barrett, 2011).

Often people get hung up on the product and view an eportfolio solely as a digital resume or CV. This is because, as a personal online space which can be shared with others, people often only see the final product of the eportfolio, that is: the digital information and files which showcase a person's experiences, achievements and knowledge - so you can see why people think this way.

In reality, however, it is the eportfolio process, or eportfolio approach to learning, which is the killer aspect of an eportfolio, so let's unpick this through these five steps.

5 steps to an eportfolio approach to learning

An eportfolio approach to learning involves leading and supporting a learner through a five step, iterative process which helps learners learn how to manage their own learning. It begins with:

1. What do I want to achieve? - The answer to this question may have already been determined for the learner such as:

performance criteria in a unit of competency,

learning objectives/outcomes in a curriculum document, or

standards set by a regulatory or professional body.

Or, it might be working with the learner to set some personal or professional goals.

2. What do I need to do to achieve it? - This step is best done through using an action planning approach which helps learners to determine the steps, key milestones and resources they need to achieve their learning outcomes or the goals they set in step 1.

3. How will I know when I have achieved it? - This step is often overlooked by educators as they are the ones who decide whether someone will pass something or not, without even including the learner in this decision-making process. However, educators should help their learners recognise when they are competent or achieved their learning objectives. The best way to do this is by teaching learners how to recognise their own 'picture of competence'.

A picture of competence is when someone is performing what is required of them in a job role eg a barista making the perfect flat white coffee. To help a learner recognise their own picture of competence, you need to deconstruct the picture of competence so a learner can recognise when they have achieved it.

This is best done by using a rubric which explicitly describes what people are doing or thinking when they have achieved their picture of competence.

4. What evidence can I capture to show that I've achieved it? - once learners recognise that they are competent or have achieved their learning outcomes or goal, the learner then needs to capture evidence of this achievement. In a digital age, learners can use a variety of ways to capture this evidence and keep it in their eportfolio, such as using:

An audio recorder on their mobile phone to capture reflective dialogue with others.

A digital camera or video recorder on their mobile phone or via a Go Pro type camera strapped to their head to capture live evidence of them doing something.

Writing blogs or online journals (either public or private) to capture what has happened on the job or at their work placement, or writing reflections of their learning journey through describing what they have achieved and why it is important.

Using Movie Maker, iMovie or Photostory to create digital stories about themselves and their learning journey.

Adding digital badges and digital certificates that they have received from their study, training or attending workshops.

5. How can I present this evidence to third parties in a way which meets their requirements? - This where the product part of an eportfolio comes in.

This step, however, isn't just throwing together all of the evidence that a learner has gathered. It's a thought out process which enables the learner to present their information in such a way that it demonstrates what they are capable of, and the presentation of this evidence will change depending on their audience.

This is where a good eportfolio tool comes in such as Mahara or PebblePad, as these tools allow learners to easily reuse and repurpose the evidence that they have stored in their eportfolio. This step also requires the learner to have good digital literacy.

Why use an eportfolio approach?

As a summary, an eportfolio is more than just the final output ie the online collection of evidence. It is the process which empowers learners to manage their own learning. In an era which requires people to have higher order thinking and problem solving skills ( Australian Government's "Ideas Boom" Innovation Agenda), an eportfolio approach provides a learning-centred approach to education and training.

In simple terms, the eportfolio approach is about:

1. Goal setting

2. Action planning

3. Reflection

4. Multi-media and file management

5. Web presence development

To learn more about eportfolios

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Eportfolios: more than a digital resume | eWorks Blog

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Allison Miller is a regular contributor to eWorks' blog. Allison is passionate about providing learners with the knowledge and skills that they need in order to succeed in the world of work. Here she discusses ePortfolios, often misunderstood to be solely digital CVs, but in reality offering so much more.

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Learner Autonomy

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Technology + Teacher Modeling = Student Autonomy

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Julie and Michelle, French Second Language teachers at the Western Quebec School Board, tell their story about creating & using online resources with their 2nd language adult education students.

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Danelia- Fernández

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Technology + Teacher Modeling = Student Autonomy

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Julie and Michelle, French Second Language teachers at the Western Quebec School Board, tell their story about creating & using online resources with their 2nd language adult education students.

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Learner Autonomy

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TED session about Learner Autonomy

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Creating Autonomy-Supportive Learning Environments | Jon Stolk | TEDxSMU

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You Tube Video Link to Leaner Autonomy

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Autonomy is all about the learner. It is not about studying alone; it is about the learner taking control of their learning, and being responsible for how and what they learn. This might include deciding what areas they need to improve their English, choosing exercises to study and evaluating how they did...

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Sarfaraz Ahmed Pakistan

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The Internet TESL Journal Dimitrios Thanasoulas
akasa74 [at] hotmail.com

1. Introduction

Over the last two decades, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence have gained momentum, the former becoming a 'buzz-word' within the context of language learning (Little, 1991: 2). It is a truism that one of the most important spin-offs of more communicatively oriented language learning and teaching has been the premium placed on the role of the learner in the language learning process (see Wenden, 1998: xi). It goes without saying, of course, that this shift of responsibility from teachers to learners does not exist in a vacuum, but is the result of a concatenation of changes to the curriculum itself towards a more learner-centred kind of learning. What is more, this reshaping, so to speak, of teacher and learner roles has been conducive to a radical change in the age-old distribution of power and authority that used to plague the traditional classroom. Cast in a new perspective and regarded as having the 'capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4), learners, autonomous learners, that is, are expected to assume greater responsibility for, and take charge of, their own learning. However, learner autonomy does not mean that the teacher becomes redundant, abdicating his/her control over what is transpiring in the language learning process. In the present study, it will be shown that learner autonomy is a perennial dynamic process amenable to 'educational interventions' (Candy, 1991), rather than a static product, a state, which is reached once and for all. Besides, what permeates this study is the belief that 'in order to help learners to assume greater control over their own learning it is important to help them to become aware of and identify the strategies that they already use or could potentially use' (Holmes & Ramos, 1991, cited in James & Garrett, 1991: 198). At any rate, individual learners differ in their learning habits, interests, needs, and motivation, and develop varying degrees of independence throughout their lives (Tumposky, 1982).

2. What is Autonomy?

For a definition of autonomy, we might quote Holec (1981: 3, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 1) who describes it as 'the ability to take charge of one's learning'. On a general note, the term autonomy has come to be used in at least five ways (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 2):

for situations in which learners study entirely on their own;

for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning;

for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education;

for the exercise of learners' responsibility for their own learning;

for the right of learners to determine the direction of their own learning.

It is noteworthy that autonomy can be thought of in terms of a departure from education as a social process, as well as in terms of redistribution of power attending the construction of knowledge and the roles of the participants in the learning process. The relevant literature is riddled with innumerable definitions of autonomy and other synonyms for it, such as 'independence' (Sheerin, 1991), 'language awareness' (Lier, 1996;James & Garrett, 1991), 'self-direction' (Candy, 1991), 'andragogy' (Knowles, 1980; 1983 etc., which testifies to the importance attached to it by scholars. Let us review some of these definitions and try to gain insights into what learner autonomy means and consists of. As has been intimated so far, the term autonomy has sparked considerable controversy, inasmuch as linguists and educationalists have failed to reach a consensus as to what autonomy really is. For example, in David Little's terms, learner autonomy is 'essentially a matter of the learner's psychological relation to the process and content of learning--a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4). It is not something done to learners; therefore, it is far from being another teaching method (ibid.). In the same vein, Leni Dam (1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 16), drawing upon Holec (1983), defines autonomy in terms of the learner's willingness and capacity to control or oversee her own learning. More specifically, she, like Holec, holds that someone qualifies as an autonomous learner when he independently chooses aims and purposes and sets goals; chooses materials, methods and tasks; exercises choice and purpose in organising and carrying out the chosen tasks; and chooses criteria for evaluation.
To all intents and purposes, the autonomous learner takes a (pro-) active role in the learning process, generating ideas and availing himself of learning opportunities, rather than simply reacting to various stimuli of the teacher (Boud, 1988; Kohonen, 1992; Knowles, 1975). As we shall see, this line of reasoning operates within, and is congruent with, the theory of constructivism. For Rathbone (1971: 100, 104, cited in Candy, 1991: 271), the autonomous learner is a self-activated maker of meaning, an active agent in his own learning process. He is not one to whom things merely happen; he is the one who, by his own volition, causes things to happen. Learning is seen as the result of his own self-initiated interaction with the world.

Within such a conception, learning is not simply a matter of rote memorisation; 'it is a constructive process that involves actively seeking meaning from (or even imposing meaning on) events' (Candy, 1991: 271).

Such "inventories" of characteristics evinced by the putative autonomous learner abound, and some would say that they amount to nothing more than a romantic ideal which does not square with reality. This stands to reason, for most of the characteristics imputed to the "autonomous learner" encapsulate a wide range of attributes not commonly associated with learners. For instance, Benn (1976, cited in Candy, 1991: 102) likens the autonomous learner to one '[w]hose life has a consistency that derives from a coherent set of beliefs, values, and principles--[and who engages in a] still-continuing process of criticism and re-evaluation', while Rousseau ([1762] 1911, cited in Candy, 1991: 102) regards the autonomous learner as someone who 'is obedient to a law that he prescribes to himself'. Within the context of education, though, there seem to be seven main attributes characterising autonomous learners (see Omaggio, 1978, cited in Wenden, 1998: 41-42):

1. Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies;

2. take an active approach to the learning task at hand;

3. are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all costs;

4. are good guessers;

5. attend to form as well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy as well as appropriacy;

6. develop the target language into a separate reference system and are willing to revise and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply; and

7. have a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language.

Here, some comments with respect to the preceding list are called for. The points briefly touched upon above are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the development of learner autonomy, and many more factors such as learner needs, motivation, learning strategies, and language awareness have to be taken into consideration. For example, the first point hinges upon a metalanguage that learners have to master in order to be regarded as autonomous, while points 4) and 7) pertain to learner motivation. In view of this, an attempt will be made, in subsequent sections, to shed some light on some of the parameters affecting, and interfering with, learners' self-image as well as their capacity and will to learn. It is of consequence to note that autonomy is a process, not a product. One does not become autonomous; one only works towards autonomy. One corollary of viewing autonomy in this way is the belief that there are some things to be achieved by the learner, as well as some ways of achieving these things, and that autonomy 'is learned at least partly through educational experiences [and interventions]' (Candy, 1991: 115). But prior to sifting through the literature and discussing learning strategies, motivation, and attitudes entertained by learners, it would be pertinent to cast learner autonomy in relation to dominant philosophical approaches to learning. The assumption is that what is dubbed as learner autonomy and the extent to which it is a permissible and viable educational goal are all too often 'based on [and thus constrained by] particular conceptions of the constitution of knowledge itself' (Benson, 1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 20).
3. Learner Autonomy and Dominant Philosophies of Learning

In this section, three dominant approaches to knowledge and learning will be briefly discussed, with a view to examining how each of them connects up with learner autonomy. Positivism, which reigned supreme in the twentieth century, is premised upon the assumption that knowledge reflects objective reality. Therefore, if teachers can be said to hold this "objective reality," learning can only 'consist--in the transmission of knowledge from one individual to another' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 20). Congruent with this view, of course, is the maintenance and enhancement of the "traditional classroom," where teachers are the purveyors of knowledge and wielders of power, and learners are seen as 'container[s] to be filled with the knowledge held by teachers' (ibid.). On the other hand, positivism also lends support to the widespread notion that knowledge is attained by dint of the 'hypothesis-testing' model, and that it is more effectively acquired when 'it is discovered rather than taught' (ibid.) (my italics). It takes little perspicacity to realise that positivism is incongruent with, and even runs counter to, the development of learner autonomy, as the latter refers to a gradual but radical divorce from conventions and restrictions and is inextricably related to self-direction and self-evaluation.

Constructivism is an elusive concept and, within applied linguistics, is strongly associated with Halliday (1979, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 21). As Candy (1991: 254) observes, '[o]ne of the central tenets of constructivism is that individuals try to give meaning to, or construe, the perplexing maelstrom of events and ideas in which they find themselves caught up'. In contrast to positivism, constructivism posits the view that, rather than internalising or discovering objective knowledge (whatever that might mean), individuals reorganise and restructure their experience. In Candy's terms (Candy, 1991: 270), constructivism 'leads directly to the proposition that knowledge cannot be taught but only learned (that is, constructed)', because knowledge is something 'built up by the learner' (von Glasersfeld & Smock, 1974: xvi, cited in Candy, 1991: 270). By the same token, language learning does not involve internalising sets of rules, structures and forms; each learner brings her own experience and world knowledge to bear on the target language or task at hand. Apparently, constructivism supports, and extends to cover, psychological versions of autonomy that appertain to learners' behaviour, attitudes, motivation, and self-concept (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 23). As a result, constructivist approaches encourage and promote self-directed learning as a necessary condition for learner autonomy.

Finally, critical theory, an approach within the humanities and language studies, shares with constructivism the view that knowledge is constructed rather than discovered or learned. Moreover, it argues that knowledge does not reflect reality, but rather comprises 'competing ideological versions of that reality expressing the interests of different social groups' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 22). Within this approach, learning concerns issues of power and ideology and is seen as a process of interaction with social context, which can bring about social change. What is more, linguistic forms are bound up with the social meanings they convey, in so far as language is power, and vice versa. Certainly, learner autonomy assumes a more social and political character within critical theory. As learners become aware of the social context in which their learning is embedded and the constraints the latter implies, they gradually become independent, dispel myths, disabuse themselves of preconceived ideas, and can be thought of as 'authors of their own worlds' (ibid.: 53).

4. Conditions for Learner Autonomy

The concern of the present study has so far been with outlining the general characteristics of autonomy. At this juncture, it should be reiterated that autonomy is not an article of faith, a product ready made for use or merely a personal quality or trait. Rather, it should be clarified that autonomous learning is achieved when certain conditions obtain: cognitive and metacognitive strategies on the part of the learner, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge about language learning, i.e., a kind of metalanguage. To acknowledge, however, that learners have to follow certain paths to attain autonomy is tantamount to asserting that there has to be a teacher on whom it will be incumbent to show the way. In other words, autonomous learning is by no means "teacherless learning." As Sheerin (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63) succinctly puts it, '[t]eachers--have a crucial role to play in launching learners into self-access and in lending them a regular helping hand to stay afloat' (my italics).

Probably, giving students a "helping hand" may put paid to learner autonomy, and this is mainly because teachers are ill-prepared or reluctant to 'wean [students]--away from teacher dependence' (Sheerin, 1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63). After all, 'it is not easy for teachers to change their role from purveyor of information to counsellor and manager of learning resources--And it is not easy for teachers to let learners solve problems for themselves' (Little, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 11). Such a transition from teacher-control to learner-control is fraught with difficulties but it is mainly in relation to the former (no matter how unpalatable this may sound) that the latter finds its expression. At any rate, learner-control--which is ancillary to autonomy--'is not a single, unitary concept, but rather a continuum along which various instructional situations may be placed' (Candy, 1991: 205). It is to these 'instructional situations' that we will turn in the next section. In this section, it is of utmost importance to gain insights into the strategies learners use in grappling with the object of enquiry, i.e., the target language, as well as their motivation and attitude towards language learning in general. A question germane to the discussion is, what does it mean to be an autonomous learner in a language learning environment?

4.1. Learning Strategies

A central research project on learning strategies is the one surveyed in O'Malley and Chamot (1990). According to them, learning strategies are 'the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information' (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990: 1, cited in Cook, 1993: 113)--a definition in keeping with the one provided in Wenden (1998: 18): 'Learning strategies are mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so'. To a greater or lesser degree, the strategies and learning styles that someone adopts 'may partly reflect personal preference rather than innate endowment' (Skehan, 1998: 237). We will only briefly discuss some of the main learning strategies, refraining from mentioning communication or compensatory strategies (see Cook, 1993 for more details).

4.1.1. Cognitive Strategies

According to O'Malley and Chamot (1990: 44), cognitive strategies 'operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning'. Learners may use any or all of the following cognitive strategies (see Cook, 1993: 114-115):

repetition, when imitating others' speech;

resourcing, i.e., having recourse to dictionaries and other materials;

translation, that is, using their mother tongue as a basis for understanding and/or producing the target language;

note-taking;

deduction, i.e., conscious application of L2 rules;

contextualisation, when embedding a word or phrase in a meaningful sequence;

transfer, that is, using knowledge acquired in the L1 to remember and understand facts and sequences in the L2;

inferencing, when matching an unfamiliar word against available information (a new word etc);

question for clarification, when asking the teacher to explain, etc.

There are many more cognitive strategies in the relevant literature. O'Malley and Chamot (1990) recognise 16.
4.1.2. Metacognitive Strategies

According to Wenden (1998: 34), 'metacognitive knowledge includes all facts learners acquire about their own cognitive processes as they are applied and used to gain knowledge and acquire skills in varied situations'. In a sense, metacognitive strategies are skills used for planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning activity; 'they are strategies about learning rather than learning strategies themselves' (Cook, 1993: 114). Let us see some of these strategies:

directed attention, when deciding in advance to concentrate on general aspects of a task;

selective attention, paying attention to specific aspects of a task;

self-monitoring, i.e., checking one's performance as one speaks;

self-evaluation, i.e., appraising one's performance in relation to one's own standards;

self-reinforcement, rewarding oneself for success.

At the planning stage, also known as pre-planning (see Wenden, 1998: 27), learners identify their objectives and determine how they will achieve them. Planning, however, may also go on while a task is being performed. This is called planning-in-action. Here, learners may change their objectives and reconsider the ways in which they will go about achieving them. At the monitoring stage, language learners act as 'participant observers or overseers of their language learning' (ibid.), asking themselves, "How am I doing? Am I having difficulties with this task?", and so on. Finally, when learners evaluate, they do so in terms of the outcome of their attempt to use a certain strategy. According to Wenden (1998: 28), evaluating involves three steps: 1) learners examine the outcome of their attempts to learn; 2) they access the criteria they will use to judge it; and 3) they apply it.
4.2. Learner Attitudes and Motivation

Language learning is not merely a cognitive task. Learners do not only reflect on their learning in terms of the language input to which they are exposed, or the optimal strategies they need in order to achieve the goals they set. Rather, the success of a learning activity is, to some extent, contingent upon learners' stance towards the world and the learning activity in particular, their sense of self, and their desire to learn (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 134-136). As Candy (1991: 295-296) says, 'the how and the what of learning are intimately interwoven--[T]he overall approach a learner adopts will significantly influence the shape of his or her learning outcomes' (my italics). In other words, language learning--as well as learning, in general--has also an affective component. 'Meeting and interiorising the grammar of a foreign language is not simply an intelligent, cognitive act. It is a highly affective one too--' (Rinvolucri, 1984: 5, cited in James & Garrett, 1991: 13). Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 1, cited in Graham, 1997: 92) define 'affective variables' as the 'emotionally relevant characteristics of the individual that influence how she/he will respond to any situation'. Other scholars, such as Shumann (1978) and Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) attach less importance to learners' emotions, claiming that 'social and psychological factors' give a more suitable description for students' reactions to the learning process. Amongst the social and affective variables at work, self-esteem and desire to learn are deemed to be the most crucial factors 'in the learner's ability to overcome occasional setbacks or minor mistakes in the process of learning a second [or foreign] language' (Tarone & Yule, 1989: 139). In this light, it is necessary to shed some light on learner attitudes and motivation.

Wenden (1998: 52) defines attitudes as 'learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approaching or avoiding'. For her, two kinds of attitudes are crucial: attitudes learners hold about their role in the learning process, and their capability as learners (ibid.: 53). In a sense, attitudes are a form of metacognitive knowledge. At any rate, 'learner beliefs about their role and capability as learners will be shaped and maintained--by other beliefs they hold about themselves as learners' (ibid.: 54). For example, if learners believe that certain personality types cannot learn a foreign language and they believe that they are that type of person, then they will think that they are fighting a "losing battle," as far as learning the foreign language is concerned. Furthermore, if learners labour under the misconception that learning is successful only within the context of the "traditional classroom," where the teacher directs, instructs, and manages the learning activity, and students must follow in the teacher's footsteps, they are likely to be impervious or resistant to learner-centred strategies aiming at autonomy, and success is likely to be undermined.

In a way, attitudes are 'part of one's perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living [or the culture of the target language]' (Brown, 1987: 126), and it seems clear that positive attitudes are conducive to increased motivation, while negative attitudes have the opposite effect. But let us examine the role of motivation.

Although the term 'motivation' is frequently used in educational contexts, there is little agreement among experts as to its exact meaning. What most scholars seem to agree on, though, is that motivation is 'one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second or foreign language (L2) learning. Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process' (Dornyei, 1998: 117). According to Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 3), motivation is comprised of three components: 'desire to achieve a goal, effort extended in this direction, and satisfaction with the task'.

It is manifest that in language learning, people are motivated in different ways and to different degrees. Some learners like doing grammar and memorising; others want to speak and role-play; others prefer reading and writing, while avoiding speaking. Furthermore, since '[the learning of a foreign language] involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviours and ways of being, and therefore has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner' (Williams, 1994: 77, cited in Dornyei, 1998:122), an important distinction should be made between instrumental and integrative motivation. Learners with an instrumental orientation view the foreign language as a means of finding a good job or pursuing a lucrative career; in other words, the target language acts as a 'monetary incentive' (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993: 3). On the other hand, learners with an integrative orientation are interested in the culture of the target language; they want to acquaint themselves with the target community and become integral parts of it. Of course, this approach to motivation has certain limitations (see Cookes and Schmidt, 1991, cited in Lier, 1996: 104-105), but an in-depth analysis is not within the purview of this study. The bottom line is that motivation is 'a central mediator in the prediction of language achievement' (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993: 3), as various studies have shown (see Kraemer, 1990; Machnick and Wolfe, 1982; et al.).

4.3. Self-esteem

Closely related to attitudes and motivation is the concept of self-esteem, that is, the evaluation the learner makes of herself with regard to the target language or learning in general. '[S]elf-esteem is a personal judgement of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself' (Coopersmith, 1967: 4-5, cited in Brown, 1987: 101-102). If the learner has a 'robust sense of self', to quote Breen and Mann (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 134), his relationship to himself as a learner is unlikely to be marred by any negative assessments by the teacher. Conversely, a lack of self-esteem is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards his capability as a learner, and to 'a deterioration in cognitive performance', thus confirming his view of himself as incapable of learning (Diener and Dweck, 1978, 1980, cited in Wenden, 1998: 57).

Now that we have examined some of the factors that may enhance, or even militate against, the learner's willingness to take charge of her own learning and her confidence in her ability as a learner, it is of consequence to consider possible ways of promoting learner autonomy. To say, though, that learner autonomy can be fostered is not to reduce it to a set of skills that need to be acquired. Rather, it is taken to mean that the teacher and the learner can work towards autonomy by creating a friendly atmosphere characterised by 'low threat, unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback, respect for the ideas and opinions of others, approval of self-improvement as a goal, collaboration rather than competition' (Candy, 1991: 337). In the next section, some general guidelines for promoting learner autonomy will be given, on the assumption that the latter does not mean leaving learners to their own devices or learning in isolation.

5. How Can Learner Autonomy be Promoted?

To posit ways of fostering learner autonomy is certainly to posit ways of fostering teacher autonomy, as '[t]eachers' autonomy permeates into [learners'] autonomy' (Johnson, Pardesi and Paine, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 51). Nevertheless, our main focus will be on what the learner can do in order to attain a considerable degree of autonomy, even though the success of the learner is, to a great extent, determined--alas! vitiated--by the educational system and the requisite role of the teacher.

5.1. Self-reports

According to Wenden (1998: 79-95), a good way of collecting information on how students go about a learning task and helping them become aware of their own strategies is to assign a task and have them report what they are thinking while they are performing it. This self-report is called introspective, as learners are asked to introspect on their learning. In this case, 'the [introspective] self-report is a verbalization of one's stream of consciousness' (Wenden, 1998: 81). Introspective reports are assumed to provide information on the strategies learners are using at the time of the report. However, this method suffers from one limitation: '[t]he concentration put on thinking aloud might detract from [learners'] ability to do the task efficiently' (ibid.: 83), thus rendering the outcome of the report spurious and tentative.

Another type of self-report is what has been dubbed as retrospective self-report, since learners are asked to think back or retrospect on their learning. Retrospective self-reports are quite open ended, in that there is no limit put on what students say in response to a question or statement that points to a topic in a general way. There are two kinds of retrospective self-reports: semi-structured interviews and structured questionnaires. A semi-structured interview may focus on a specific skill with a view to extracting information about learners' feelings towards particular skills (reading, listening, etc.), problems encountered, techniques resorted to in order to tackle these problems, and learners' views on optimal strategies or ways of acquiring specific skills or dealing with learning tasks. A structured questionnaire seeks the same information but in a different way: by dint of explicit questions and statements, and then asking learners to agree or disagree, write true or false, and so forth.

It could be argued that self-reports can be a means of raising awareness of learners' strategies and the need for constant evaluation of techniques, goals, and outcomes. As Wenden (1998: 90) observes, 'without awareness [learners] will remain trapped in their old patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully autonomous'.

5.2. Diaries and Evaluation Sheets

Perhaps one of the principal goals of education is to alter learners' beliefs about themselves by showing them that their putative failures or shortcomings can be ascribed to a lack of effective strategies rather than to a lack of potential. After all, according to Vygotsky (1978), learning is an internalised form of a formerly social activity, and 'a learner can realize [his] potential interactively--through the guidance of supportive other persons such as parents, teachers, and peers' (Wenden, 1998: 107). Herein lies the role of diaries and evaluation sheets, which offer students the possibility to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, identifying any problems they run into and suggesting solutions. Let us have a look at the following diaries based on authentic student accounts of their language learning:

A.
Dear Diary,
These first few days have been terrible. I studied English for eight years·just think, eight years, but I only learned a lot of grammar. I can't speak a word. I don't dare. I can't express myself in the right way, so I am afraid to speak.
The other day I started watching TV, so I could get accustomed to the sound. I don't understand TV news very well·only a few words. I can't get the main point. In school it's easy to understand, but I can't understand the people in the stores.
What can I do?
Yours Truly,
Impatient
(from Wenden, 1998: 102)
B.
Dear Diary,
I read the New York Times every day. Every day I learn many new expressions-a lot of vocabulary. But I can't use this vocabulary in conversation. The same thing happens with what I learn at school. I can't use it when I want to talk to Americans or even with my own Spanish friends.
I need some help.
Yours Truly,
Confused
(from Wenden, 1998: 102)

Alongside diaries, students can also benefit from putting pen to paper and writing on their expectations of a course at the beginning of the term, and then filling in evaluation sheets, or reporting on the outcomes of a course, at the end of the term. These activities are bound to help learners put things into perspective and manage their learning more effectively. Let us consider two such reports:

1.
What do I want to do this year?
"I want to speak more English and I'd like to spell better that I do now. I would like to work with another boy or girl who is willing to speak English with me and make some activities in English. Materials: Challenge to think and crosswords.
I would like to get a more varied language and I would like to be better at spelling, especially the words used in everyday situations. How: I will prepare Îtwo minutes' talk' for every lesson, I will write down new words five times and practise pronouncing them. I will get someone or myself to correct it. I will read at least two books÷difficult ones÷and make book-reviews.ä
(Beginning of term÷4th year of English
[from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole,
1990: 30])
2.
What do you feel you know now that you didn't know before?
"I think that we have grown better at planning our own time. We know more about what we need to do and how to go about it. We try all the time to extend our vocabulary and to get an active language. Evaluation also helped us. It is like going through things again.ä
(End of term÷4th year of English
[from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole,
1990: 32])

So far, one of the assumptions underlying this discussion on learner autonomy has been that the teacher has not relinquished his "authority"; rather, that he has committed himself to providing the learners with the opportunity to experiment, make hypotheses, and improvise, in their attempt to master the target language and, along with it, to learn how to learn in their own, individual, holistic way (see Papaconstantinou, 1997). It may be the case that learner autonomy is best achieved when, among other things, the teacher acts as a facilitator of learning, a counsellor, and as a resource (see Voller, 1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 99-106). In other words, when she lies somewhere along a continuum between what Barnes (1976, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 99) calls transmission and interpretation teachers. As Wright (1987: 62, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 100) notes, transmission teachers believe in subject disciplines and boundaries between them, in content, in standards of performance laid down by these disciplines that can be objectively evaluated--that learners will find it hard to meet the standards; interpretation teachers believe that knowledge is the ability to organize thought, interpret and act on facts; that learners are intrinsically interested and naturally inclined to explore their worlds--that learners already know a great deal and have the ability to refashion that knowledge.

The interpretation teacher respects learners' needs and is 'more likely to follow a fraternal-permissive model' (emphasis added) (Stevick, 1976: 91-93, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 100). It is with this type of teacher that the role of persuasive communication is most congruent.

5.3. Persuasive Communication as a Means of Altering Learner Beliefs and Attitudes

Inasmuch as the success of learning and the extent to which learners tap into their potential resources in order to overcome difficulties and achieve autonomy are determined by such factors as learners' motivation, their desire to learn, and the beliefs they hold about themselves as learners and learning per se, it is manifest that changing some negative beliefs and attitudes is bound to facilitate learning. 'Attitude change [is assumed to] be brought about through exposure to a persuasive communication [between the teacher and the learners]' (Wenden, 1998: 126). According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of attitude change developed by Petty and Cacciopo (1986, cited in Wenden, 1998: 126), there are several ways of bringing about this change, however, our concern will only be with persuasive communication.

A persuasive communication is a discussion presenting information and arguments to change a learner's evaluation of a topic, situation, task, and so on. These arguments could be either explicit or implicit, especially when the topic is deemed of importance. If, for instance, a deeply ingrained fear or belief precludes the learner from engaging in the learning process, persuasive communication purports to help bring these facts to light and identify the causes that underlie them. It should be noted, though, that no arguments to influence students' views are given. Rather, the communication comprises facts that show what learners can do to attain autonomy and that learners who do so are successful (see Wenden, 1998: 126). This approach is based on the assumption that when learners are faced with convincing information about a situation, 'they can be led to re-examine existing evaluations they hold about it and revise or change them completely' (ibid.: 127).

6. Conclusion

This study is far from comprehensive, as we have only skimmed the surface of the subject and the puzzle called learner autonomy. Many more pieces are missing. For instance, no mention has been made of the role of the curriculum in promoting learner autonomy, despite the debate on the relationship between classroom practice and ideological encoding (Littlejohn, 1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 181-182). At any rate, the main point of departure for this study has been the notion that there are degrees of learner autonomy and that it is not an absolute concept. It would be nothing short of ludicrous to assert that learners come into the learning situation with the knowledge and skills to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, or to make decisions on content or objectives. Nevertheless, learner autonomy is an ideal, so to speak, that can, and should, be realised, if we want self-sufficient learners and citizens capable of evaluating every single situation they find themselves in and drawing the line at any inconsistencies or shortcomings in institutions and society at large. Certainly, though, autonomous learning is not akin to "unbridled learning." There has to be a teacher who will adapt resources, materials, and methods to the learners' needs and even abandon all this if need be. Learner autonomy consists in becoming aware of, and identifying, one's strategies, needs, and goals as a learner, and having the opportunity to reconsider and refashion approaches and procedures for optimal learning. But even if learner autonomy is amenable to educational interventions, it should be recognised that it 'takes a long time to develop, and--simply removing the barriers to a person's ability to think and behave in certain ways may not allow him or her to break away from old habits or old ways of thinking' (Candy, 1991: 124). As Holyoake (1892, vol. 1, p. 4) succinctly put it, '[k]nowledge lies everywhere to hand for those who observe and think'.

References

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The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 11, November 2000
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Thanasoulas-Autonomy.html

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Thanasoulas - What is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Fostered (TESL/TEFL)

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The Internet TESL Journal Dimitrios Thanasoulasakasa74 [at] hotmail.com Over the last two decades, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence have gained momentum, the former becoming a 'buzz-word' within the context of language learning (Little, 1991: 2).

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Article on Learner Autonomy in English Course

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Week 7 - Article on Learner Autonomy in Language Learning

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Times of flux should signal the A-OK for some experimentation in schools. My own school, for instance, is encouraging more PBL.

In my room, we've got my advocacy unit on superheroes. Meanwhile, a fundraiser is launching in a sixth-grade room, a seventh-grade science class is doing a national parks tie-in to the upcoming Rose Bowl Parade theme, and a living museum is underway in some history teachers' rooms.

The other big PBL experiment is one that will hopefully create a universal academic experience for many students. Based on curriculum I developed for my new STEM-focused PBL book, I'm guiding students toward an Invention Convention, and I invited any interested teacher to participate.

As a result, I now have approximately 500 students from every subject area ready to begin moving through this unit. But with such an enthusiastic response to the offer comes a happy problem to solve.

Individualized Pacing through a PBL Unit

How do I individualize each student's learning process and pacing? After all, Jose could be brought into my 1:1 classroom by both his language arts teacher and his math teacher, while Christina might only be brought in by her science teacher.

I began thinking, therefore, about how gamification could potentially solve this challenge. While I don't tend to stress gold stars and party points, I realized that "leveling up" might be ideal for this kind of experiment.

I did my research and settled on a company called Rezzly (previously known as 3DGameLabs). It's currently in beta mode and specializes in gamifying higher education and individualized teacher PD. I'm using it, however, to implement the lessons through my middle school PBL unit.

As I learned the program, I began speaking with Lisa Dawley, the CEO of Rezzly. She and her team answered my many questions (and there were many) to help me lesson plan in a very different way.

How to Prep for a Gamified PBL Unit

Prepping for a gamified unit is very different than prepping for your traditional, linear model. Here are some things I learned:

1. Lesson Plan Using a Web. Gamifying my PBL unit meant I had to plan a web of lessons, not linear ones. I used Popplet to indicate the order lessons became available and which ones were prerequisites to open up next levels of learning. My lesson plans looked a little like this:

So lesson A starts a student on their journey of learning. Kids submit their assignment, and I approve it (which then opens up lessons B and C). B, once approved, opens up D, and so on.

Each lesson incorporates different modalities, like a video or customized screencast, or an activity ranging from formal writing to a simple contribution on a Padlet page or Todaysmeet feed.

And because it's online -- supported by classroom meetings -- the unit doesn't shut down once the bell rings. Students can push through the lessons at their own pace.

2. Plan for Tons of Student Choice. I gave plenty of choice in how students progressed through the unit. Students research, develop pitches, and build 3D prototypes, while crowdsourcing advice about slogans, names, and price points, as well. But they aren't necessarily working in the same order as their neighbor.

They are given resources to learn about basic engineering, designing, and writing, and the scaffolded lessons help them make bite-sized decisions leading up to the big convention in May. But they are doing it along a personalized pathway.

Dawley stresses that gamifying a PBL unit encourages student choice because:

"Gamification supports sequencing strategies and still offers options at the same time... The engagement comes from student choice. Everyone likes to have a say in what they learn and how...our big challenge was to create a learning platform that offered enough curricular options to empower students with choice."

3. Reward for Both Content Proved and Skills Learned. I developed checkpoints with which to reward students for both content learned and skills acquired. Sure, the student gets a grade on a formal writing assignment, which I score, but they also receive badges for accomplishing a task efficiently within a certain amount of days, which is tracked by Rezzly, or in participating in peer-created surveys.

This too had impact on my lesson design. Dawly believes gamification encourages the teacher "to think not only about curricular goals but also achievements for social skills such as 'helped a friend' or 'found and reported a mistake in the quest...quest chains and achievements give the teacher a mechanism for developing those strands of deeper learning found in PBL."

My rewards reflect this new kind of encouragement. Students can earn a "Critical Collaborator" award to a "Rube Goldberg Badge." In amongst it all are assignments that are formally graded. After all, different incentives work for different students.

4. Pilot First Through the Eyes of a Student. I piloted ahead of time using a small subset of students. Six ELA Honors students and eleven students in special education are piloting the lessons and giving me feedback. By working with a small group, I get to see if I've allocated points incorrectly or if a badge doesn't get awarded when it should.

This is a time for experimentation with enthusiasm. Develop the lessons you know will engage and educate. Take risks, and play with the curriculum.

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Project-Based Learning and Gamification: Two Great Tastes That Go Great Together | Edutopia

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Times of flux should signal the A-OK for some experimentation in schools. My own school, for instance, is encouraging more PBL. In my room, we've got my advocacy unit on superheroes.