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Anne Scatchell argues that administrators need specific training to successfully manage culturally diverse classrooms

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Anne Scatchell argues that administrators need specific training to successfully manage culturally diverse classrooms

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"I know that I don't have a background in working with English language learners, but aren't you using far too many videos in your class?" said the district level administrator. "You need to make sure that you are teaching the curriculum 'as is.' We can't have you teaching any differently than the other teachers." The principal stood by silently after admitting unfamiliarity with best practice for ELs but sided with his supervisor. Unfortunately, variations on this conversation are being repeated in schools throughout the country.

Administrators or team lead teachers without knowledge of second-language acquisition and best practices for providing culturally and linguistically responsive instruction often question EL specialists or even pressure them to alter their teaching methods. Many EL teachers I have spoken to nationwide say they feel like they are being turned into reading specialists who happen to work with ELs. Many schools, in a misguided attempt to help ELs close the achievement gap, are not actually meeting their needs and are missing out on the many benefits of having a culturally and linguistically diverse student population. I strive to be the type of administrator who will have the information needed prior to making any programmatic decision that will impact a student.

As an EL/bilingual teacher, I worked with a wide range of administrators. There were some who trusted my knowledge and experience in working with EL students and either sought information from me on best practices or wanted to understand my rationale for the approaches I was using. These administrators were usually supportive when I requested materials or approval for carrying out special projects with my students. Others, such as the one in my introduction, did not have an understanding of second-language acquisition yet they wanted to control the instructional delivery, even when I knew it was against best practice. I did my best to advocate for my students while following administrative guidelines. Informed administrators are at the core of providing the increasing number of ELs with the instruction they need to increase their English language proficiency and to meet or exceed rigorous academic standards.

Required of All Schools
Federal law requires that all students qualifying as LEP (Limited English Proficient) must be provided an equal opportunity to access curriculum and instruction which is appropriate for their current level of English-language proficiency. All teachers are legally responsible for the education of EL students, not only the bilingual or EL specialists. Administrators must ensure that their bilingual and EL students are making gains in English-language proficiency while meeting challenging academic standards. EL and bilingual students need to receive culturally and linguistically responsive instruction from every staff member who works with them.

Furthermore, schools must strive to build connections with all of the parents of their school communities. The parents of our EL and bilingual students often remain outsiders from our schools for a variety of reasons, including their own limited English proficiency and unfamiliarity with both the structure of American schools and the opportunities to become involved. Some cultural belief systems hold explicit trust in the education system to provide their children with what they need to make academic gains. When families speak other languages, they may feel both intimidated and disenfranchised by their inability to comfortably communicate through the dominant language of power, English.

Administrators need to look at all aspects of their schools through the lens of EL or bilingual families. Are signs in place that will help all feel welcomed? Are documents and newsletters provided in multiple languages? Do families have the ability to translate content from your website easily into their native languages? Are there representative members from your school population participating in parent/teacher organizations? Are family members provided the opportunity to spend time volunteering in classrooms or sharing information about their cultures?

While there are external signs to look for in a school to determine the level of inclusion of all families, there is a deeper, less-visible layer to a school that must also be examined. This layer is the level of bias and cultural superiority that can be expressed silently through the attitudes and actions of staff members who may have deeply ingrained beliefs such as "they live in this country and they need to learn English." Even if this message is never directly articulated, if the belief is held by staff members, it will be felt by those with culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

Administrators must help their staff honestly evaluate their convictions and beliefs while articulating the clear expectation that the building not only values but celebrates diversity. Multilingualism is not viewed as a deficit but as an asset; this viewpoint is demonstrated at all levels. All students are encouraged and provided opportunities to become multilingual so they can excel in our increasingly global community. Do students in the school feel that they should maintain their native languages as they increase their English-language proficiency? Do multilingual students understand and feel the pride of having more than one language? Are teachers encouraged to reach out to both families and students in their native languages?

Knowledge Is Power
Even when all students and families feel welcomed, and valued and are actively involved within a school community, are EL and bilingual students receiving the instruction that they need to succeed? Are administrators familiar with best practices in EL and bilingual instruction? Do they know what to look for as they observe the instruction of EL and bilingual students in all settings throughout the school? Can they provide instructional leadership and support to those teachers who are finding increasing numbers of EL and bilingual students in their classrooms?

Administrators need to acquire the knowledge necessary to ensure culturally and linguistically responsive instruction for all of their students. This includes knowledge of second-language acquisition, understanding common myths and misconceptions regarding EL and bilingual education, visible ways to embrace native language and culture, establishing learning communities that encourage students to take risks with their new language, and providing comprehensible input that provides access to academic content, while continually moving students to increasing levels of English proficiency.
There are several key practices in place in the schools that are successfully meeting all of the needs of their EL and bilingual students. Some of these include:

* Comprehensible Input: Ensuring that teachers know the current English-language-proficiency levels of their students and plan instruction and content assessments accordingly. Students are continually receiving meaningful instruction, and assessments are reflective of academic gains rather than current English levels.

* Explicit Objectives: Schools that are meeting the needs of EL and bilingual students require staff to provide students explicit content and language objectives for each learning episode. All students understand what they are to learn in each lesson. These objectives start and end the lessons. Students are provided opportunities to reflect and take ownership of their learning.

* Increased Student Talk: Teachers structure their classes so that all students have several opportunities to engage in academic conversations with peers. This may be with a partner or small group. All students have time to share their thinking and make newly acquired academic content and vocabulary their own. There is an intentional shift to decrease teacher talking time while increasing student talk.

* Skillful Scaffolding: Teachers support their students' learning through scaffolding techniques that enable students to gain academic knowledge while increasing language development. They make use of instructional aids such as graphic supports including charts, tables, graphic organizers, or timelines. In addition, sensory supports such as realia, videos, manipulatives, and models, along with interactive supports through cooperative structures such as partner work, small groups, and use of native language is part of a successful program.

* Meaningful Use of English: Providing students with meaningful, authentic reasons to use their new English language. This may include involvement in service learning projects such as writing to seniors or veterans, publishing and sharing their own stories, and becoming writing buddies with other students or mentors. All of these provide reasons to use English while building connections to the school community and empowering the students.

Response to Intervention (RtI)
While schools across the country are using differentiated instruction, problem-solving teams, research-based interventions, and data to best meet the needs of all students, many do not have considerations in place when working to best meet the needs of EL and bilingual students who are not making gains. As administrators, we must review our current RtI system and ensure that we are not under- or over-identifying EL and bilingual students as qualifying for special-education support services. Is a student's struggle to make academic growth a language issue or a processing issue?

First, we must circle back to the quality of core instruction that our EL and bilingual students are receiving. If students do not have comprehensible instruction or their academic growth is being measured through assessments that are beyond their current English-proficiency level, then we must address this core deficit before accurately determining a student's academic ability. Once confident in the appropriateness of instruction and assessment, we need to look closer at language or ability to learn.

We need to provide relevant information to all team members that includes the students' formal academic backgrounds and their language allocation indicating the expressive and receptive use of languages in the home. Interviews with the families should also be conducted to determine if the families have any of the same concerns or observations regarding the students' learning or language use at home. It is important to explore any cultural beliefs that may be impacting a student's educational experience, such as not asking questions or interacting with students of another gender. The better we understand the individual learner we are trying to help, the better we will be able to make the appropriate determinations about his or her learning.

We may need to conduct qualification testing both in English and the native language to provide the data needed to arrive at informed decisions. If we are implementing an intervention for that student, we need to ensure that it has been researched to show effectiveness with EL or bilingual students. If the determination is made that an EL or bilingual student is in need of receiving special-education support, it is imperative to ensure that the student continues to receive language support services and that your special education staff receives training in best practices for EL and bilingual students. Effective schools have structures and protocols in place to ensure that all staff members working with the same students collaborate and plan together on a regular basis.

Proportional Increase
As the number of English language learners and bilingual students continues to increase in our nation's schools, it is our responsibility to increase our knowledge base in this area to best meet their needs. If administrators continue to lead without this information, we face increasing risk of the achievement gap widening, students not connecting with our schools, and students slipping through the system without realizing their true potential. These factors will contribute to the increase of the dropout rate of this population. We must walk the talk of lifelong learning and take the steps needed to confidently lead the education of all of our students.

You can further your knowledge base in this area through professional journals, blogs, and online articles. Consider enrolling in a graduate course relating to the education of EL and bilingual students. Go directly to the source: learn from the knowledge and experience of an EL or bilingual teacher or director whom you respect. Use your knowledge to survey your school, take action, make improvements, articulate expectations, and support your teachers in meeting the needs of all of our students.

Anne Scatchell is currently an assistant principal at Sarah Adams Elementary School in Lake Zurich, IL. She designed and teaches a graduate-level course in innovative methods for teaching EL sat the Illinois Resource Center for National Louis University. She has has presented at the state and national level on EL topics and is a contributing author to TESOL publication Language Teaching Insights from Other Fields.

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Anne Scatchell argues that administrators need specific training to successfully manage culturally diverse classrooms "I know that I don't have a background in working with English language learners, but aren't you using far too many videos in your class?" said the district level administrator. "You need to make sure that you are teaching the curriculum ...

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John Carr offers strategies for identifying and serving the growing population of English learners with learning difficulties

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John Carr offers strategies for identifying and serving the growing population of English learners with learning difficulties

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In the 2012-2013 school year, there were approximately 1,346,000 English learners (ELs) in California's K-12 public education system (California Department of Education, 2013). It is estimated that, in general, 15% of students should qualify for special education services (Root, 2010), so it is likely that 202,000 students in California have or should have the dual status of ELs with a learning disability (EL-LD).

It can be difficult to distinguish between permanent language-learning problems, the normal second-language-learning process, but using the old deficit model and waiting years to document too little progress, and then responding is not the answer. This article provides guidance about how to informally assess ELs for an LD and then use the data and literature about what works to design a way for all diverse learners in the classroom to be successful learning the English language and content within a response-to-intervention (RTI) framework. Ideally, ELs and EL-LDs are served in inclusive classrooms in which co-teaching is often used.

I prefer the term "learning difficulty" to "learning disability," because these students are able to learn but face challenges that neurotypical students do not. This article considers students with ADHD, mild to moderate autism/Asperger, and "specific learning disabilities" that include communication difficulties.

Commonalities among ELs and Students with LDs
A common strength among many students with LDs is learning visually. The use of visuals also scaffolds auditory English language processing for ELs, especially at the emerging and expanding ELD levels (Carr and Bertrando, 2012). Challenges that tend to be common among ELs and students with one of the more prevalent LDs such as specific learning difficulty (particularly language-processing), ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), and autism are presented in Figure 1.
An EL may have difficulty when key academic vocabulary is unknown or the "teacher talk" is long and includes many complex sentences. A student with an LD such as auditory processing may not process the meaning of words as fast as they are spoken, resulting in missing information and misconceptions (e.g., "A bee is an insect; therefore, it is not a subcategory of mammal"). A student with autism who may not be an EL may have difficulty with comparison words (e.g., "and/or," "but/in contrast"), especially in the context of abstract ideas, as well as general difficulty thinking critically. The common rule of thumb is to give an EL about seven seconds to process a question; this might need to be extended for an EL-LD who is challenged to process the language, think critically, and express an answer.

Tony, a twelfth-grade EL-LD with autism and auditory processing difficulty, sat blankly when asked several "quick clarifying questions" that did not follow the order of ideas in his written report. Later, he said, "I knew the answers but I was very nervous. It was like I knew all the toys in my toy box but it spilled over and I couldn't find each of the toys when the teacher asked." This was Tony's way of saying he had difficulty quickly accessing the information stored in his memory.

As ELs progress from emerging to expanding to bridging ELD levels (California's new three ELD levels), they tend to use greater complexity in discourse and greater command of conventions. However, an EL-LD may have difficulty progressing through levels; for instance, the student may continue to make certain oral errors such as subject-verb agreement or auxiliary + main verb tense (e.g., "did went" instead of "did go").

Flowchart of Assessment and Interventions
Figure 2 presents a system of instructional program decisions that reflects a common RTI framework for all students. For new students, a brief intake interview of the adult and/or high-school-age student is used to identify whether or not the student might be an EL and/or have an LD. Parents have a wealth of information that can assist educators.

During the intake interview, the Home Language Survey is used to determine if the state-approved ELD test should be administered. Designating a student as emerging, expanding or bridging, overall and in reading, writing, and speaking and listening, starts the process of determining the most appropriate ELD program for an EL (left side of Figure 2). The Learning Disabilities Checklist (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2011) can serve as a guide (not a tool) toward determining if the student has an LD. If there is proof or suspicion that that student has an LD, special-education records should be requested from the previous school and/or the parent can request a new assessment (right side of Figure 2). This process for EL and LD identification can be greatly simplified and accelerated for students with accessible electronic records.

It is critical that the school psychologist who administers assessments to ELs for special-education services have expertise in linguistic and cultural differences, second-language development, and selecting and interpreting appropriate assessments. Far too few have that expertise (Klingner and Artiles, 2003). Comparing results of English- and native-language assessments can be helpful, but testing in two languages is not helpful if the student is bilingual and when the testing time exhausts the student.

During the year, teachers frequently assess students, monitor progress, collaborate with peers and parents, and try new instructional strategies that may be more effective. The school's RTI team (DeRuvo, 2010) meets often (e.g., every four to six weeks) to monitor all students' progress, and the programs and strategies being used and to determine if a student needs a change in Tier 1 (research-based classroom instruction) and/or Tier 2 (small group) or Tier 3 (individual or special education services) interventions. Tier 2 and 3 interventions can be delivered in the regular classroom, a push-in rather than a pull-out model.

When reviewing a student's strengths and challenges, a teacher, or RTI or IEP team, should consider whether or not the observed characteristics or behaviors are typical for ELs or for students with a particular LD. A team that includes ELD and special-education teachers is the best way to assess an EL who may have an LD and to understand the whole child (Abrams, Ferguson & Laud, 2001). Sometimes, a strength can be a key that unlocks a challenge. An EL may find learning English phonics frustrating when "rules ar broken," whereas a student with autism may show frustration because of having a very "rigid mind" in which unexpected changes are intolerable.

Using EL and psychological assessments in parallel and a common RTI framework for data-based instructional decisions, as shown in Figure 2, can have many benefits for school staff, students, and parents. While each student is unique, certain instructional strategies can effectively support the needs of many diverse learners in the general-education classroom.

Two Foremost Instructional Strategies
Two evidence-based instructional strategies that can benefit all students and particularly ELs and students with LDs are visuals and Think-Pair-Share (Carr and Bertrando, 2012; Hill and Flynn, 2006; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001; Scruggs et al, 2009).

Visuals, the first strategy, include pictures, illustrations, video clips, and graphic organizers and support oral instruction when used in tandem throughout a lesson on a daily basis. Teachers can use graphic organizers to relate the past lesson and personal examples to the present topic and to organize information by categories and relationships. The teacher can use the following, second strategy to engage students in thinking about what should be entered into the graphic organizer.

Think-Pair-Share, the second strategy, provide pairs of students perhaps one minute for a structured discussion followed by a few minutes for pairs to share ideas with the whole class. This is an excellent strategy to support academic English language development for ELs and social learning skills for students with LDs. The strategy directly addresses California's English language arts speaking and listening standard 1 and ELD standard 1, which involve collaborative discussions and are pivotal to all other standards.

Consider how to integrate visuals and Think-Pair-Share for a possible synergistic effect. For instance, at the start of a new unit lesson topic, a teacher could use Think-Pair-Share to give students time to think about and discuss information they already know in pairs for one minute. The teacher could then ask the whole class for ideas to enter into a visual such as a graphic organizer or KWL chart (what you know, want to know, have learned). Repeat the two-step process at key points throughout the lesson to add new information to the graphic organizer and adjust for prior misconceptions (especially for inquiry-based science lessons).

References
Abrams, J., Ferguson, J., & Laud, L. (2001). "Assessing ESOL students." Educational Leadership, Understanding Learning Differences, 59(3), 62-65.
Carr, J. and Bertrando, S. (2012). Teaching English learners and students with learning difficulties in an inclusive classroom. San Francisco: WestEd.
California Department of Education (2013). California language Census: Spring 2013. Source is http://www.cde.ca.gov/ds/sd/cb/cefelfacts.asp.
DeRuvo, S. L. (2010). The essential guide to RTI: An integrated, evidence-based approach. San Francisco: WestEd and Jossey-Bass.
Hill, J. D., & Flynn, K. M. (2006). Classroom instruction that works for English language learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Klingner, J. K., and Artiles, A. J. (2003). "When should bilingual students be in special education?" Educational Leadership, Teaching All Students, 61(2), 66-71. (Article may be found online at ascd.org.)
Marzono, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Polluck, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
National Center for Learning Disabilities (2011). Learning disabilities checklist. Source is www.LD.org.
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., Berkeley, S., & Graetz, J. E. (2009). "Do special education interventions improve learning of secondary content? A meta-analysis." Remedial & Special Education, 31(6), 437-449. A summary can be retrieved from http://nichcy.org/research/summaries/abstract80.

John Carr is the founder of John Carr Educational Enterprise (JCEE, jcarrmaa.com), author of the Link of ELD-ELA Standards for California, and former lead author of the (outdated) Map of ELD-ELA Standards.

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When Language and Learning Get Tough - Language Magazine

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John Carr offers strategies for identifying and serving the growing population of English learners with learning difficulties In the 2012-2013 school year, there were approximately 1,346,000 English learners (ELs) in California's K-12 public education system (California Department of Education, 2013). It is estimated that, in general, 15% of students should qualify for special education services ...

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		April 2009  | Volume 66 | Number 7

		Supporting English Language Learners
		
		Pages 32-37
		
	

	
		
	
		Best Practices for Adolescent ELLs
		
		
		
	

	Judith Rance-Roney

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		April 2009  | Volume 66 | Number 7

		Supporting English Language Learners
		
		Pages 32-37
		
	

	
		
	
		Best Practices for Adolescent ELLs
		
		
		
	

	Judith Rance-Roney

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April 2009 | Volume 66 | Number 7
Supporting English Language Learners Pages 32-37

Judith Rance-Roney

This confusion only complicates the challenges of schools striving to educate large and increasing populations of language-minority students. And one of the most complex challenges is how to meet the needs of adolescent English language learners.

A Challenging Population

Whether adolescent English language learners are citizens, residents, or undocumented individuals, Plyler v. Doe ensures their right to an education if they meet the age limits determined in state education codes. However, in many high schools across the United States, 16- to 20-year-old immigrants who seek to attend school are discouraged from enrolling and referred to adult literacy programs offering far fewer hours of schooling.

The lack of enthusiasm for serving these students is unfortunate, but understandable. Public schools may feel they have little to gain and much to lose by enrolling older adolescents who have little or no English. No Child Left Behind demands that after one year of enrollment, ELLs must take statewide assessments, and the results must be integrated into the school's accountability measures. Enrolling large numbers of adolescent ELLs can put the school at risk of failing to make adequate yearly progress.

In these times of increasingly meager resources in which schools are paring down to essential programs and making contingency plans to deal with statewide budget cuts and federal program funding reductions, adolescent ELLs are often viewed as an unwelcome presence in schools, a drain on the limited resources available. Increasing the challenge is the reality that many immigrant adolescents enter secondary schools with a triple whammy-little or no English, interrupted or limited formal schooling, and limited literacy in any language.

Who Are Adolescent ELLs?

There is no more diverse learning cohort than that grouped under the term adolescent English language learner. Although many of these students are newcomers (immigrants who arrived within the past five years), others have always called the United States home. We know, for example, that 57 percent of adolescent learners classified as limited English proficient were born within U.S. borders and thus are second- or third-generation residents (Batalova, Fix, & Murray, 2007). These students have often achieved oral proficiency but lag behind in their ability to use English for literacy and content learning for reasons that may be only partly related to second-language status-for example, mobility and switching between language programs (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007).

The particular life circumstances of any adolescent ELL will predict the individual needs that his or her school must address. Immigration status, quality of education background, native language, cultural distance from U.S. culture, expectation of remaining in the United States or reentering the country of origin, and economic resources are just a few of the variables (Lucas, 1997).

Indeed, the adolescent population of English learners is marked by its heterogeneity. The fact that the students share the label of limited English proficient (LEP) is vastly overshadowed by the variety of challenges and personal resources that they bring to schools.

Some immigrant students arrive in the United States with fully developed academic literacy in their native language and a strong record of academic achievement in their home countries. Filip, for example, entered U.S. schools in 9th grade after having attended a high-level academic school in the Czech Republic. Within two years, he had gained a command of academic English and was performing above grade level.

Contrast Filip with Ben, who emigrated from the Sudan at age 16 after experiencing the trauma of civil unrest and a severe interruption in formal schooling, which resulted in a limited foundation in literacy in any language. Rosaria, unlike either Filip or Ben, is a U.S.-born English language learner. Although her home language is Spanish, at 17, her social language outside the home is English. However, her writing exhibits many of the linguistic differences of an immigrant English learner, and she reads at the 5th grade level.

The common label adolescent English language learner, applied to all three of these students, may tempt us to assume that their academic needs are essentially the same. In reality, there is a patchwork quilt of English language learner profiles-a quilt rich with diverse life experiences, but loosely woven with common learning needs.

Promising Principles and Practices

It's time to move beyond the labels that confound and restrict the ways schools serve adolescent English language learners and to move these students out of the periphery of school reform efforts.

Adolescent ELLs benefit most from reforms that improve learning for all students, such as curriculum improvement, professional development, and school reorganization (Ruiz-de-Velasco & Fix, 2000). Such reforms must also take into account the particular context of each school-its demographic profile, existing program models, community culture, and so on. With this caveat in mind, a number of principles and practices support improved achievement for adolescent ELLs as well as for their native-English-speaking peers.

Schoolwide, Team-Based Support
Key question: Do educators in your school assume shared responsibility for the achievement of English language learners?
In many schools, the ELL specialist or ESL (English as a second language) teacher goes it alone. The ELL classroom is viewed as the one-stop shop for all the needs of English language learners-testing, translating, counseling, editing college applications, and even health care. Mainstream school personnel may abdicate responsibility for the needs of ELLs because they believe that the specialist understands these students better.

We need to give ELLs access to the full resources of the school. One way to accomplish this is by creating cross-disciplinary schoolwide teams that may include the ELL specialist, content-area teachers who teach English language learners, counselors who specialize in the needs of ELLs, key school administrators, and other staff. Such teams should have a common planning period and should meet regularly to align curriculum; plan integrated, cross-content projects; address student concerns; and monitor student progress. School support staff (the librarian, social worker, technology leader, and so on) should attend some meetings to ensure that ELLs have access to an array of learning resources and services.

A Dual Curriculum
Key question: Does your school provide a curriculum that promotes the language development of English language learners as well as their general academic needs?
Marzano (2003) identifies one of the key factors in fostering school achievement as "a guaranteed and viable curriculum" (p. 22). For English language learners, a viable curriculum must include a detailed developmental sequence for learning the English language in social and academic contexts; this is in contrast to a language arts curriculum for native speakers, which primarily seeks to add academic discourse to the native language that a student brings to school. However, in many states, the standards that guide the school or district curriculum for ELLs may simply copy the English language arts standards designed for native English speakers, with little careful attention to second-language development. A viable curriculum also must address the additional time it will take for these students to concurrently master academic literacy and content.

To create a language-development curriculum, a school district should consult a team of educators, including classroom ELL teachers, university linguistics specialists, ELL coaches, and English language arts and content-area teachers. Such a curriculum should address the full range of English language competencies (grammatical and structural, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, discursive, and semantic) while focusing on language for social integration and on language for academic achievement.

The language curriculum should include not only instruction in the specialized language of each academic subject area (for example, in math, hypotenuse, angle, and so on.), but also academic cohesion words and phrases (such as thus, therefore, as a result of) and specialized academic process words (such as explicate, enumerate, define). Finally, these students should have "safe-space" opportunities not just to read and write this language, but to practice the spoken language of academic conversations so they can participate confidently in teacher-to-student interactions and in collaborative learning groups.

Global Community Classrooms
Key question: Does your district integrate English language learners who are recent immigrants with the general school population, segregate them in self-contained classrooms or schools, or find a middle ground?
Recent immigrants may face even more challenges than other English language learners as they attempt to adjust to a new country and culture. One approach to easing that adjustment is the newcomer school, which may be a school within a school (Olsen, 1997) or, like New York City's award-winning International High School, a stand-alone school enrolling only recent immigrants. These schools provide immigrant students with intensive English-language instruction, content-area support in their native languages, and culturally responsive student and social services.

However, school districts may not have sufficient numbers of immigrants or enough community support to maintain this model. And some researchers express concern about extended linguistic segregation because of the lack of interaction with U.S.-born peers, potentially lower standards for academic achievement and opportunity, and lack of access to social networks that will serve these learners in the future (Gándara, Rumberger, Maxwell-Jolly, & Callahan, 2003).

A promising classroom structure sometimes called the ELL cluster model has emerged in some schools to integrate some of the benefits of newcomer programs while avoiding linguistic segregation from native-English-speaking peers (Rance-Roney, 2008). A special cohort of content-area teachers is trained in methods for teaching the English language and in theories of second-language acquisition. Within these globally focused classrooms, one-quarter to one-third of the students are English language learners and the remaining students are native English speakers. This classroom model uses elements of the sheltered instruction approach for ELLs, a class structure wherein content mastery and academic language skill are developed concurrently. Although the class is conducted in English, classroom aides who speak the ELLs' native languages may assist. The teacher creates an environment that legitimizes the students' appropriate use of the native language to support the learning of academic content.

Native English speakers in cluster classrooms benefit from the diverse perspectives their multilingual students bring to class discussion. In addition, the use of such instructional techniques as increased use of visuals, deeper development of background information, and more activities that increase student-to-student interaction supports learning for every student. A crucial component of the cluster model is building intentional communities to foster interaction and respect among cultures. Further research is needed on the ELL cluster model, but at the very least, in these classrooms their teachers and classmates view ELLs as resources, not as liabilities.

Extended Time to Learn
Key question: Has your school explored ways to use all available time in English language learners' school day for effective instruction-including the idea of implementing flexible student pathways?
In Double the Work, Short and Fitzsimmons (2007) recommend adopting flexible student pathways that may entail an extended school year or day schedule, night and weekend classes, or simply a plan that enables late-entry adolescent ELLs to stay in high school for more than the expected four years. The authors describe several alternative high school programs, including the J. E. B. Stuart High School in Fairfax County, Virginia. This school's individualized education plans for late-entry ELLs may include summer sessions, after-school tutoring, block scheduling, and literacy intervention classes. A partnership with the local community college also enables students to begin their college programs while they finish an extended high school schedule.

Even schools that are unable to implement alternative pathways need to maximize adolescent ELLs' learning opportunities. For example, teachers of state-mandated ESL or ESOL courses should integrate subject-area content with language development and academic learning strategies. And although well-meaning school personnel might attempt to make the school day easier for these students by scheduling study halls and life-enrichment electives, such courses should be kept to a minimum. Adolescent ELLs have much to learn and little time to learn it.

Unfortunately, schools frequently assign even ELLs with high academic ability to remedial courses that will slow their progress toward graduation. Rumberger and Gándara (2004) describe

instances where secondary English learners, even those with college preparatory coursework in their countries of origin, were assigned to nonacademic and remedial courses, and shortened days in their high schools. (p. 2,046)

Schools should coach guidance counselors, assistant principals, and other staff who do student scheduling to ignore the label of limited English proficient, and instead to examine each individual's academic history and potential.

Individual Progress Records
Key question: Does your school maintain (and make easily available to teachers and other key personnel) records of individual English language learners' linguistic and academic history and ongoing progress?
What amazes me when I speak with many content-area teachers is that they often remain unaware until November or December of the existence of English language learners among the 120-150 students they meet each day. Why hasn't the ELL teacher shared information about these students? As Lucas, Villegas, and Freedson-Gonzalez (2008) write,

Mainstream teachers need to learn about the language and academic backgrounds of the ELLs in their classes, because without this knowledge, teachers cannot anticipate the aspects of learning that are likely to be too difficult for their ELLs to handle without instructional supports. (p. 366)

As part of the intake process, the school should always take an academic history that provides a year-by-year accounting of school experience. In a comprehensive interview (with a translator), the school should collect details of language background, family support, and personal goals and maintain these in an individual folder for each ELL.

To plan the optimum class schedule and to assess how easily the student is likely to master both English and content material, schools must consider this academic history. Filip, for example, should have a class schedule that reflects his strong academic background, which may be hidden by his current English limitations. Ben, on the other hand, will need a web of support services and a plan for extended years of school enrollment to give him the best chance of graduation. Rosaria, who is native-like in spoken English, may require intensive academic intervention support services concurrent with her academic program, with individual attention from a specialist cross-trained in ELL methods and literacy. Too often, schools label these students by their lack of English and not by their actual individual learning needs.

A second component of the student folder is an English language learning record. As students enter school, they bring varying levels of general English proficiency, but-even more challenging-they bring a variety of specific language skills. One high school student may sound like a native speaker but exhibit significant errors in written work; another student may write with relative accuracy and ease but have difficulty with oral expression. Such variations must guide the students' individual learning plan.

Teachers of ELLs should conduct ongoing classroom-based assessment (monthly or bimonthly) of each learner's progress toward English mastery and record the results in a learning record that follows the student from teacher to teacher and school to school. Some of the techniques of literacy assessment-such as running records, anecdotal evidence, competency checklists, and alternative assessment-are being adapted successfully for this population.

ELLs are more transient on average than native speakers. As families settle in the area, they may try out different housing options or move to build closer family connections. School district offices should monitor the flow of students within and across district borders and identify other schools and districts that may share the same ELL population. Working together to build both a coherent shared curriculum and parallel learning records will mean more cohesive services for adolescent ELLs.

Moving Beyond the Labels

I still dream of a kumbaya moment when ELL teachers from the east and the west and everywhere in between will gather together to agree on the terms that define our field, our learners, and our programs. If we look beyond the labels, however, there is surprising agreement in what constitutes best practice for adolescent English language learners. It is up to school leaders to implement the school reforms that work and to think outside the traditional boxes that have restricted the achievement of these students.

References

Batalova, J., Fix, M., & Murray, J. (2007). Measures of change: The demography and literacy of adolescent English learners. New York: Migration Policy Institute, Carnegie Corporation.

Gándara, P., Rumberger, R., Maxwell-Jolly, J., & Callahan, R. (2003). English learners in California schools: Unequal resources, unequal outcomes. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 11(36) [Online journal]. Available: http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n36

Lucas, T. (1997). Influences on the educational experiences of immigrant students in U.S. schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED406825). Available: www.ncela.gwu.edu/pathways/immigration/influences.htm

Lucas, T., Villegas, A. M., & Freedson-Gonzalez, M. (2008). Linguistically responsive teacher education: Preparing classroom teachers to teach English language learners. Journal of Teacher Education, 59, 361-373.

Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Olsen, L. (1997). Made in America: Immigrant students in our public schools. New York: New Press.

Rance-Roney, J. A. (2008). Creating intentional communities to support English language learners in the classroom. English Journal, 97(5), 17-22.

Ruiz-de-Velasco, J., & Fix, M. (2000). Overlooked and underserved: Immigrant students in U.S. secondary schools. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

Rumberger, R. W., & Gándara, P. (2004). Seeking equity in the education of California's English learners. Teachers College Record, 106(10), 2,032-2,056.

Short, D. J., & Fitzsimmons, S. (2007). Double the work: Challenges and solutions to acquiring language and academic literacy for adolescent English language learners-A report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.

Judith Rance-Roney is Assistant Professor of Education at the State University of New York at New Paltz and Co-Chair of the English Language Learner Network Leadership Team of the National Writing Project; jranceroney@gmail.com.

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April 2009 | Volume 66 | Number 7 Supporting English Language Learners Pages 32-37 Judith Rance-Roney This confusion only complicates the challenges of schools striving to educate large and increasing populations of language-minority students. And one of the most complex challenges is how to meet the needs of adolescent English language learners.

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 December 2004/January 2005  | Volume 62 | Number 4

		Educating Language Learners
		
		Pages 68-71
		
	

	
		
	
		Reading Supports for All
		
		
		
	

	Jill Fitzgerald and Michael F. Graves

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 December 2004/January 2005  | Volume 62 | Number 4

		Educating Language Learners
		
		Pages 68-71
		
	

	
		
	
		Reading Supports for All
		
		
		
	

	Jill Fitzgerald and Michael F. Graves

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4
Educating Language Learners Pages 68-71

Jill Fitzgerald and Michael F. Graves

Teaching students with a wide range of abilities and needs has always challenged teachers. Language is rapidly becoming an additional form of diversity, and many teachers have little information or education that focuses on assisting multilingual learners with their reading skills. Scaffolded reading experiences can help. They provide a practical, research-based framework that teachers can use to support English language learners.

A scaffolded reading experience (SRE) is a flexible framework for teaching lessons involving texts. It is designed to facilitate English language learners' reading development as well as their learning through reading (Fitzgerald & Graves, 2004). The framework can be used in both reading and content-area lessons at all grade levels, in regular classrooms, pullout English as a second language (ESL) classrooms, bilingual education classrooms, foreign language classrooms, and special education classrooms. SREs are, of course, only one part of a comprehensive reading program. English language learners, just like monolingual learners, need instruction designed to broaden their repertoires of reading strategies and skills.

The scaffolded reading experience framework consists of a set of prereading, during-reading, and postreading activities to use with any genre of text, including fiction and nonfiction. Figure 1 (p. 71) shows menus of possible categories of activities within each part of the framework. When planning an SRE, teachers start by considering their specific students, the reading selection, and the reading purpose; they then create activities that are modulated as needed for the English language learners.

Figure 1. Prereading, During-Reading, and Postreading Activities

Prereading Activities

Activating or building background knowledge.

Providing text-specific knowledge.

Relating the reading to students' lives.

Preteaching vocabulary.

Preteaching concepts.

Prequestioning, predicting, and direction setting.

Using students' native language, such as writing important concept words in the students' native language or inviting adult speakers of the native language into the classroom to translate.

Engaging students and community members as resources.

Suggesting reading strategies.

During-Reading Activities

Silent reading.

Reading to students.

Guided reading.

Oral reading by students.

Modifying/simplifying the text.

Using students' native language.

Postreading Activities

Questioning.

Discussing.

Building connections.

Writing.

Drama.

Artistic, graphic, and nonverbal activities.

Application and outreach activities.

Using students' native language.

Engaging students and community members as resources.

Reteaching.

For instance, a 5th grade teacher may plan an SRE for the chapter "Mom, Did You Vote?" in Joy Hakim's War, Peace, and All That Jazz (1995) for her class of 25 students, three of whom read Spanish more easily than English. The teacher plans a number of prereading questions for the whole class but selects only three for the English language learners, asks the ESL teacher at the school to write these three questions in Spanish, and then presents them to the English language learners. As the teacher asks each question in English, she points to the corresponding question in Spanish.

Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) first used the term scaffolding to characterize mothers' verbal interaction when reading to their young children. Scaffolding in SREs refers to a temporary and adjustable support that enables students to accomplish a task that would be impossible without the scaffold or to accomplish a task more fully or more easily than they could without the scaffold (Graves & Graves, 2003). Training wheels on a bicycle are a perfect example of a physical scaffold. Scaffolding has been shown to be a powerful instructional tool that many educators endorse.

Successful implementation of SREs depends on several components. First, there is the scaffold itself-the temporary and supportive prereading, during-reading, and postreading activities that serve as a skeleton to support English language learners. Second, teachers should use scaffolded reading experiences in ways that place students in the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978), in the sense that the experiences require the students to use functions that have not fully matured but that are in the process of maturing. This calls for activities that successfully support the students through tasks that they could not quite manage independently.

For example, some 6th grade English language learners might find Lois Lowry's Number the Stars (1989), which deals with a family's flight from Nazi persecution, outside their zone of proximal development if they were asked to read it on their own. Such activities as building background knowledge about World War II and the Nazis and preteaching difficult vocabulary could put the book within their zone of proximal development. The teacher should gradually shoulder less and less of the scaffold, transferring more and more responsibility to students. When teaching a similarly difficult selection in the middle of the year, the teacher might preteach fewer words, and when teaching a comparable selection at the end of the year, the teacher might simply give students a glossary of the difficult words.

Reading in a New Language

Scaffolded reading experiences are especially important for English language learners because reading in a new language may involve more complexity than native language reading-and reading in one's native language is already complicated enough.

English language learners need to use mental executive functioning as they read, putting together and juggling many cognitive processes. This may be more burdensome for English language learners than for native speakers because it involves more processes, such as translation.

What Transfers

Results from several studies (Chikamatsu, 1996; Koda, 1993) indicate that second-language readers definitely rely on their native language in ways that facilitate their second-language reading processes. On the whole, English language learners from kindergarten through high school tend to transfer phonological awareness, or knowledge about the sounds used in language, from one language to another-a facilitative transfer (Gottardo, Yan, Siegel, & Wade-Woolley, 2001). Some languages have cognate words (look-alike words that derive from the same root, such as idea in English and idea in Spanish). Although these words are usually pronounced differently, readers can easily recognize them as they read in the new language. Selected cognitive processes, such as some word recognition strategies and some comprehension strategies, may also be used similarly in both English language learner reading and native language reading (Fitzgerald, 1995).

Cultural Understandings

Acceptable word orders for the same meanings and intentions differ across languages. For example, in English we might say, I forgot the book. In Spanish, we could say, Se me olvidó el libro, which literally translates into English as "Itself to me forgot the book." Differences in syntax often signal different cultural understandings. I forgot the book implies that I am at the center of things in my universe, whereas the Spanish statement takes me out of the center of that universe and places greater importance on the object, the book. These two syntactical arrangements illustrate different cultural understandings about how individuals relate to objects in time and space and how they assign worldly significance. When confronted with new acceptable word orders, English language learners are not only learning new syntax, but they are also struggling to adapt to new cultural understandings.

Making It Manageable

SREs support English language learners with the complexities of reading in a new language in several important ways. Having students do prereading, during-reading, and postreading activities breaks down a complex reading task into smaller chunks. This framework also eases the cognitive demands on the English language learner by structuring these demands in distinct stages.

For instance, imagine a sheltered English classroom with a monolingual English teacher. The 10 students in the class-7th, 8th, and 9th graders-are native speakers of Spanish, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Hmong, and they read English at 4th grade through 6th grade levels (Cooke, 2002). The teacher plans a set of social studies lessons in which the students learn about ancient Chinese memorial ceremonies and rituals for the dead. He asks the students to name examples of past, present, and future experiences that have had-or will have-serious impact on their lives. The students are reading Black Powder by William Wu (1993), which deals with a Chinese 17-year-old's efforts to honor his dead father with a fireworks display. The teacher divides the reading into three days of small, highly supportive sessions. The first day, he targets four prereading activities: motivating the students, which might involve the teacher sharing a personal example of an especially poignant ceremony; relating reading to students' lives; building background knowledge; and preteaching vocabulary. The following day, he engages the students in three during-reading activities: reading aloud to students, guided reading, and silent reading. On day three, he leads a discussion session as a postreading strategy. By dividing the reading process into three smaller chunks, the teacher simplifies content, breaks down learning into stages, and supports the students in the complexities of the reading task.

Empowered to Help

Teachers can use SREs to "slice" student goals and assignments to help tailor lessons to English language learners' abilities and needs. For instance, a 5th grade teacher conducts a series of lessons on sound waves. Her class includes two Latino English language learners who are recent arrivals to the United States. Because it is unrealistic to expect the English language learners to achieve the same content-learning goals as the native English speakers in the same amount of time, the teacher plans an SRE. She sets up learning goals for all the students and selects a subset for the two Latino students.

On the first day, the teacher's content-learning goals for her class include the concepts that waves have amplitude and frequency. For the Latino students, she selects a single goal: frequency. She then decides on specific prereading, during-reading, and postreading activities that will help the students achieve those goals. For the Latino students, she selects a subset of activities that fit the learning goal of frequency. By choosing a specific goal with related activities, the teacher reduces the complex cognitive reading demands on the English language learners so they can begin to learn in English.

Content teachers often believe they have no power to help their English language learners improve their reading skills. When teachers use SREs and modulate their lessons specifically with new language learners in mind, however, they become empowered to ease the cognitive demands that weigh heavily on English language learners. The 5th grade teacher who taught the lesson on sound waves recognized how overwhelming the lesson would be for the English language learners, but she believed that these students could learn something if she did specific activities in advance.

An SRE in Action

Imagine you are working on social studies concepts with a class of 5th graders. Of your 30 students, six are English language learners, four of whom are recent arrivals to the United States and native speakers of Spanish. The class is reading the first chapter of Cooper's Indian School: Teaching the White Man's Way (1999), and the goal you have set for the class is to learn the most important information presented in the chapter. However, you slice the goals for the four Latino students. You would like them to learn just one main idea from the chapter, one reason why the U.S. government sent Native American children to boarding schools.

You might begin prereading instruction with a motivational activity for all students, such as showing photographs of Native American children leaving their reservation and the same children sitting in classes at school. You might also preteach difficult vocabulary that is important for understanding the chapter-words like interpreter, alienated, and proposition. You decide, however, that the Latino students should focus on learning just one new word- proposition -because it has a Spanish cognate that they might already know. And you might provide a prequestioning activity in which you pose questions that students can answer later on as they read the chapter. For instance, you might ask the following questions: Which children were sent away to the boarding school? When did this practice begin and end? Why did the U.S. government want to send Native American children to boarding schools? You ask the Latino students to focus on the last question only.

For the during-reading portion of the lesson, you might read part of the chapter orally to all students and then have students read the rest of it silently, looking for answers to their questions. Pair each Latino student with a strong English reader and ask the English readers to write a statement of one main idea from the text, draw a graph or picture that illustrates that idea, and explain the graph or picture to the partnered English language learner. Ask the English readers to work with their partners in answering the question about why the U.S. government wanted to send Native American children to boarding schools.

After students finish reading the chapter, they might break into discussion groups of three or four students to answer the questions posed during prereading. The teacher would carefully consider which group each Latino student should join and would point out that the Latino students should handle that one specific question. Finally, the groups could come together and share their answers, with the Latinos contributing as they are able.

New diversity in the United States points to enormous opportunities for a future filled with multilingual and multiliterate citizens. Scaffolded reading experiences provide a powerful yet flexible framework for teachers to move English language learners toward fulfilling their promise as readers and learners.

References

Chikamatsu, N. (1996). The effects of L1 orthography on L2 word recognition: A study of American and Chinese learners of Japanese. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 403-432.

Cooke, C. L. (2002). The effects of scaffolding multicultural short stories on students' comprehension, response, and attitudes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

Cooper, M. L. (1999). Indian school: Teaching the white man's way. New York: Clarion Books.

Fitzgerald, J. (1995). English-as-a-second-language learners' cognitive reading processes: A review of research in the United States. Review of Educational Research, 65, 145-190.

Fitzgerald, J., & Graves, M. F. (2004). Scaffolding reading experiences for English-language learners. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.

Gottardo, A., Yan, B., Siegel, L. S., & Wade-Woolley, L. (2001). Factors related to English reading performance in children with Chinese as a first language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 530-542.

Graves, M. F., & Graves, B. B. (2003). Scaffolding reading experiences: Designs for student success (2nd ed.). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.

Hakim, J. (1995). War, peace, and all that jazz. New York: Oxford University Press.

Koda, K. (1986). Mirror of language: The debate on bilingualism. New York: BasicBooks.

Lowry, L. (1989). Number the stars. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wood, D. J., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem-solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89-100.

Wu, W. (1993). Black powder. In L. Yep (Ed.), American dragons: Twenty-five Asian American voices. New York: HarperCollins.

Jill Fitzgerald is Associate Dean and Professor of Literacy at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; jfitzger@email.unc.edu. Michael F. Graves is Professor of Literacy Education at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis; mgraves@umn.edu. They are coauthors of Scaffolding Reading Experiences for English-Language Learners (Christopher-Gordon, 2004).

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4 Educating Language Learners Pages 68-71 Jill Fitzgerald and Michael F. Graves Teaching students with a wide range of abilities and needs has always challenged teachers. Language is rapidly becoming an additional form of diversity, and many teachers have little information or education that focuses on assisting multilingual learners with their reading skills.

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 December 2004/January 2005  | Volume 62 | Number 4

		Educating Language Learners
		
		Pages 32-36
		
	

	
		
	
		Teaching English Through English
		
		
		
	

	Christine Rossell

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 December 2004/January 2005  | Volume 62 | Number 4

		Educating Language Learners
		
		Pages 32-36
		
	

	
		
	
		Teaching English Through English
		
		
		
	

	Christine Rossell

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4
Educating Language Learners Pages 32-36

Christine Rossell

The mandate for sheltered English immersion programs in California has demonstrated the benefits of teaching English language learners in English.

During the last 25 years, U.S. public schools have developed six different instructional approaches to support students learning English as a second language:

Structured immersion-or sheltered English immersion-provides instruction almost entirely in English, but in a self-contained classroom consisting only of English language learners (ELLs).

ESL pullout programs supplement regular, mainstream classroom instruction with instruction in a small-group setting outside the mainstream classroom aimed at developing English language skills.

The sink-or-swim approach provides mainstream classroom instruction with no special help or scaffolding.

Transitional bilingual education initially delivers instruction and develops students' literacy in the students' native language but puts a priority on developing students' English language skills.

Two-way bilingual education(also known as two-way immersion) is designed to develop fluency in both the students' first language and a second language; teachers deliver instruction in both languages to classes consisting of both native English speakers and speakers of another language (most commonly Spanish).

Bilingual maintenance programs generally consist of non-English speakers and, like two-way bilingual education programs, place equal emphasis on maintaining students' primary language and developing their English proficiency.

Notice the order in which I have listed these programs. According to my own research and my reading of others' research, this list proceeds from the most effective to the least effective approaches in terms of helping students become proficient at speaking, writing, and learning in English. This research indicates that in general, the most effective way for students to learn a second language and to learn subject matter in that second language is to learn in the second language-as in the first three programs-rather than learn in the students' native language, as in the last three programs (see Baker & de Kanter, 1981, 1983; Genesee, 1976, 1987; Gersten, Baker, & Otterstedt, 1998; Lambert & Tucker, 1972; Rossell, 2002, 2003, 2004; Rossell & Baker, 1996a, 1996b).

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4 Educating Language Learners Pages 32-36 Christine Rossell The mandate for sheltered English immersion programs in California has demonstrated the benefits of teaching English language learners in English. During the last 25 years, U.S.

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December 2004/January 2005  | Volume 62 | Number 4

		Educating Language Learners
		
		Pages 14-19
		
	

	
		
	
		Getting at the Content
		
		
		
	

	Yu Ren Dong

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December 2004/January 2005  | Volume 62 | Number 4

		Educating Language Learners
		
		Pages 14-19
		
	

	
		
	
		Getting at the Content
		
		
		
	

	Yu Ren Dong

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http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/dec04/vol62/num04/Getting-at-the-Content.aspx

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4
Educating Language Learners Pages 14-19

Yu Ren Dong

Many subject-matter teachers are currently asking themselves how they can help their English language learners. Integrated into mainstream subject-matter classrooms, these students are expected to use sophisticated English language and literacy skills-skills that they are in the process of acquiring in their English as a second language (ESL) classes-to master challenging academic content (Carrasquillo & Rodriguez, 1996; Dong, 2002, 2004a, 2004b; Genesee, 1993). Maria, a 9th grade science teacher, describes a familiar scenario:

In my classroom, I have ESL students and students who are newly mainstreamed. Students who do not understand the language usually have blank looks on their faces. Some of them try to make sense of the words by using electronic translators during the lesson. [They] usually get behind and understand only half of the day's material. The next day, these students start further back in the material than their English-speaking peers and end up lost in the curriculum.

With the implementation of tougher high school graduation standards and standardized achievement tests, subject-matter teachers in secondary schools are increasingly wondering how they can effectively teach students with limited English language skills. Research in second-language acquisition has shown that adapting classroom discussion, textbook reading, and written activities to the language proficiencies of English language learners triggers English language acquisition in subject-matter classrooms (Dong, 2002, 2004a, 2004b; Kidd, 1996; Swain, 1996). Much discussion has focused on making subject-matter teachers more aware of students' linguistic and cultural backgrounds, but little discussion has focused on strategies that teachers might use to integrate language and content in mainstream subject-matter classes to facilitate English language acquisition (Swain, 1996).

Language in the Classroom

Second-language researchers point out a number of issues that mainstream subject-matter teachers would do well to tackle. Subject-matter teachers should systematically teach discipline-specific language. They should also pay attention to the functional use of language in classroom discussions. Language in the classroom focuses on such elements as checking for understanding (as in "Do you follow?"), summarizing (as in "The main point here is. . . ."), and defining (as in "What does this mean?"). A language learner who is unfamiliar with the functional use of language in classroom discussions or who has acquired a functional use of a different language in the classroom might have difficulty understanding, let alone participating in, the discussion.

Teachers should also use writing as a learning tool to promote language development (Carrasquillo & Rodriguez, 1996; Dong, 2002, 2004a; Mohan, 2001; Snow, Met, & Genesee, 1989; Swain, 1996). It is important to align English language learners' writing assignments with the students' language-development needs. For example, journal and poetry writing can facilitate students' mastery of personal and expressive language. Comparative writing-comparing and contrasting concepts, procedures, and stories-can help students develop comparative language structures. Descriptive writing about a historic event or a scientific phenomenon encourages students to purposefully and meaningfully use appropriate logical connectors and verb tenses.

The caliber of classroom discussion is an important consideration in any type of classroom. Several studies have examined classroom discussions in mainstream subject-matter classes that enrolled substantial numbers of English language learners (Harklau, 1999; Verplaetse, 1998). These studies have shown that teachers in such classrooms tend to talk more about procedures than about the significance of the subject matter and generally pose less cognitively challenging questions to English language learners than to native speakers of English. Subject-matter teachers need to systematically guide English language learners'

progressive use of the full functional range of language and support their understanding of how language form is related to meaning in subject area material. (Mohan, 2001, p. 108)

This relationship between language form and meaning is reflected, for example, in the multiple verb tenses found in historical documents, in the logical transitional phrases so abundant in scientific arguments and mathematical procedures, and in the third-person point of view common to persuasive writing. Subject-matter teachers should identify the language that students specifically need to know-including the language structures and essential vocabulary that a teaching unit requires-and integrate these topics into daily instruction.

Teachers also need to be aware of students' English proficiency levels and cultural and education backgrounds so they can tailor their instruction to specific language needs. In New York City, for example, English language learners' proficiency levels are measured by the students' performance on the standardized test LAB-R (Language Assessment Battery Test Revised). Students place in one of three language proficiency levels: beginning, intermediate, or advanced. Subject-matter teachers can learn about their students' proficiency levels by referring to the students' program cards, which often list English language levels and placement. Teachers can also get this information from the ESL teacher or department.

During the last eight years, I have worked with mainstream subject-matter and ESL teachers, English language learners, and administrators to develop methods of addressing English language learners' needs and integrating language into content instruction in mainstream subject-matter classes. I offer here some examples of effective teaching strategies that three high school subject-matter teachers used to integrate language and content in their classrooms.

Meaningful Mitosis

Sally, a 9th grade biology teacher, teaches a class that includes English language learners, newly mainstreamed ESL students, and native speakers of English. In preparing her lessons on the complex biological process of mitosis, she first asked the school's ESL teacher to help identify language that might pose difficulties for her English language learners. After the consultation, she created a vocabulary table that delineated the specific language used to describe the sequence in the mitosis process (see fig. 1).

In addition to the biology words and phrases that all the students needed to learn-such as replicate, duplicate, and condense-Sally included in the table such everyday terms as stick together, make copies, move to the center, and separate to provide language support for her English language learners. Considering that mitosis is a complex and abstract concept, Sally designed a hands-on activity using construction paper that enabled her students to visually and kinesthetically simulate the mitosis process. Working in pairs, students cut the construction paper into the shapes of chromosomes and cells and graphically reproduced the sequence of the mitosis process. Sally showed the vocabulary table to her students and asked them to explain to the class-using this vocabulary-what they had just illustrated graphically. After the students mastered both the concept and the language, she asked them to write a description of the mitosis process. Here is a sample of how one English language learner depicted the various steps:

1. Cell grows to adult and gets ready to divide.

2. Father chromosome and mother chromosome come together. They make daughter chromosomes.

3. Daughter chromosomes stick together in center of cell.

4. They then separate and become two individual chromosomes.

5. They go to opposite sides of the cell.

With the help of Sally's vocabulary table, students were able to combine their sentences into a paragraph that incorporated these scientific expressions. The teacher also introduced appropriate transitional words, including first, then, afterward, and finally. After following these steps, the same student wrote the following paragraph:

When the father chromosome and the mother chromosome come together, they form a cell. They then go through the mitosis process. First in interphase, each parent chromosome makes a copy of itself. Then during prophase the daughter chromosomes stick together and look like double chromosomes. Afterward, these chromosomes go through metaphase as they move to the center of the cell and line up. They then go through anaphase in which they separate and become two individual chromosomes. Finally, these individual chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell and the cell divides and goes through the mitosis process all over again.

In her lesson on mitosis, Sally used several important strategies to improve student comprehension. First, instead of taking language for granted, she asked for the ESL teacher's input on the language part of her lesson. The collaboration generated a chart that sequenced the complex concepts of mitosis in manageable chunks and pinpointed the specific vocabulary that the English language learners in the class needed to master to fully comprehend the topic. Also, having students illustrate the mitosis process through hands-on learning before verbalizing it proved successful because students focused on meaning first. The activity gives learning a context in a way that memorizing abstract terms cannot, and it enables students at lower levels of language proficiency to participate in the learning process. Once the students were able to articulate in sentences their understanding of mitosis, they had sufficient language support to create a paragraph.

What Would You Have Done?

Joe, an 11th grade social studies teacher, teaches a class that includes both English language learners and native English speakers. In a unit on World War II and the dropping of the atomic bomb, Joe tried to ease the potential difficulty of reading the textbook by having students read excerpts from Hersey's Hiroshima. Students also read a modified historical essay on the topic. On the basis of their readings, Joe and his class came up with a graphic representation of decisions that President Truman could have made about whether or not to drop the atomic bomb on Japan (see fig. 2, p. 18).

To familiarize his English language learners with the correct use of language structure, Joe asked the class to use the following sentence structures: If I were . . . , I would. . . . and As President Truman, I would. . . . One English language learner's written response follows.

If I were Dr. Tabuchi [a physician who experienced the event firsthand], I would have panicked. From the first person I saw, I would have fainted. But being a doctor, I would have tried to at least help the people that I think could have survived this horrible thing.

As President Truman, I would never question what I did that day. I won't feel bad. Did Japan feel bad when they bombed and destroyed our ships and killed our people? If I feel bad and am sorry for a country, I won't go to war or even be president. That's my job to be stronger than anyone else emotionally and mentally.

What is noteworthy about this unit is the way Joe engaged his English language learners in responding to this piece of world history. In the decision chart, he provided language support for his English language learners by clarifying certain words or expressions. For example, he showed in parentheses that suppose means what if and that intimidated means scared. Using simplified words in conjunction with academic language does not sacrifice academic content but creates instead a context-rich environment for academic language acquisition.

In addition, Joe assigned fiction and modified primary source reading to his students because such reading not only provides authentic materials for learning historical content, but it also breaks down dense textbook language to enhance comprehension. These texts promote student engagement by bringing the students closer to the topic under study.

Finally, Joe asked the students to write two different responses: one from the first-person perspective of someone who has witnessed the devastation of the atomic bomb and the other from President Truman's perspective. Using modified texts, graphic organizers, language supports, and multiple perspectives on the issue, Joe engaged his students at both the content and language levels. By building these linguistic bridges (Gibbons, 2003), Joe not only helped his students with the assignment but also broadened and enriched their language so that they could construct new content knowledge.

The Language of Life

Before teaching biology to a class of English language learners, Terry, a high school biology teacher, took a course in second-language acquisition and several multicultural education courses through her masters program. Terry understands that comprehension is key, and she pays special attention to creating a rich and meaningful context for learning scientific language. Keenly aware of language issues embedded in biology textbooks, Terry decided to explicitly teach biological language. In the process, she built a positive environment, encouraging students to ask questions, think on their own, and articulate those thoughts.

The following exchange on the classification of organisms took place in Terry's class.

Student 1 [addressing the teacher]: What's the difference between an autotroph and a heterotroph?

Teacher: Terrific! What is the difference between an autotroph and a heterotroph? [The class is silent.] Look at the word. [She points to the word autotroph.] Auto means what? Remember what we said about an automatic car? So auto means . . .

Student 2: Itself.

Teacher: Exactly.

Student 3: My dad has an automatic car.

Teacher: What makes it automatic?

Student 3: It changes gears by itself.

Teacher: Wonderful! That's why it's called automatic. So an autotroph is . . .

Student 4: An organism that makes food by itself.

Teacher: Yes, it makes its own food from raw materials.

Student 5: We make our own food.

Teacher: Well, we can go into the kitchen and make our own food. But we can't make it from raw materials, like sunlight and water, and another word for make is produce. [She writes produce on the board.] Autotrophs produce food. That's the difference. Heterotrophs-like you and I and the rest of the animal kingdom-can't produce our own food. So how do we get food?

Student 4: By hunting.

Teacher: Hunting? How do you get your food? [She asks student 5.]

Student 5: By cooking.

Teacher: Hunting, cooking, growing, fishing, and going to Pathmark. But autotrophs can't pick themselves up to hunt, go fishing, or go to Pathmark. They have to find another way. So what is a heterotroph then?

Student 6: A heterotroph is an organism that can't produce its own food.

In my yearlong observation of Terry's classes, the teacher showed special interest in the questions that students asked. When the student in the example asked about the difference between an autotroph and a heterotroph, Terry engaged the students in thinking about the morphological aspect of the language. By offering extensive real-life examples to create a rich context for meaning, she led students to discover the meaning for themselves. The dialogue between Terry and her students focuses on content and meaning rather than on procedures. During the lesson, one student thought humans were autotrophs because humans make their own food. Grasping that teaching moment, Terry introduced the key difference between the two terms by using synonyms and additional examples to construct new knowledge.

With Language in Mind

These teachers' efforts suggest ways in which mainstream subject-matter teachers can identify and teach discipline-specific language within subject-matter classrooms. It is helpful for subject-matter teachers to collaborate with ESL teachers to plan and provide instruction that keeps both curricular objectives and language objectives in mind (Kidd, 1996). For example, an English teacher presenting Langston Hughes's poem "Harlem" might specify the following two language objectives:

(1) Students will develop their expressive vocabulary, such as adjectives describing their American dreams, and (2) students will familiarize themselves with the questioning technique that Hughes uses in the poem to engage the reader.

Integrating language into content instruction in mainstream subject-matter classrooms requires subject-matter teachers to be knowledgeable about discipline-specific language and classroom language use and to incorporate language objectives that are responsive to English language development in the lesson. Integrating modified language into content instruction is also important. Modified language refers to the varied ways of making discipline-specific vocabulary comprehensible for English language learners. A social studies teacher can, for example, provide a glossary of key words used in the lesson, and a chemistry teacher can use gestures, simplified descriptions, and drawings to communicate the meaning of specific concepts.

Our mainstream subject-matter classes are becoming increasingly linguistically and culturally diverse. It is imperative that subject-matter teachers sensitize their instruction to English language learners' backgrounds and needs and teach subject-matter knowledge through language.

References

Carrasquillo, A. L., & Rodriguez, V. (1996). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Dong, Y. R. (2002). Integrating language and content: How three biology teachers work with non-native English-speaking students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 5(1), 40-57.

Dong, Y. R. (2004a). Teaching language and content to linguistically and culturally diverse students: Principles, ideas, and materials. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

Dong, Y. R. (2004b). Preparing secondary subject area teachers to teach linguistically and culturally diverse students. The Clearing House, 77(5), 202-208.

Genesee, F. (1993). All teachers are second language teachers. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 49(1), 47-53.

Gibbons, P. (2003). Mediating language learning: Teacher interactions with ESL students in a content-based classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 37(2), 247-273.

Harklau, L. (1999). The ESL learning environment in secondary school. In C. Faltis & P. Wolfe (Eds.), So much to say: Adolescents, bilingualism, & ESL in the secondary school (pp. 42-60). New York: Teachers College Press.

Kidd, R. (1996). Teaching academic language functions at the secondary level. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(2), 285-307.

Mohan, B. (2001). The second language as a medium of learning. In B. Mohan, C. Leung, & C. Davison (Eds.), English as a second language in the mainstream (pp. 107-126). Harlow, UK: Longman.

Snow, M. A., Met, M., & Genesee, F. (1989). A conceptual framework for the integration of language and content in second/foreign language instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 23(2), 201-217.

Swain, M. (1996). Integrating language and content in immersion classrooms: Research perspectives. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(4), 529-548.

Verplaetse, L. S. (1998). How content teachers interact with English language learners. TESOL Journal, 7(5), 24-28.

Endnote

Names used in this article are pseudonyms.

Yu Ren Dong is Associate Professor in the Department of Secondary Education and Youth Services at Queens College, CUNY; yurendong@teacher.com. She is author of Teaching Language and Content to Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Students: Principles, Ideas, and Materials(Information Age Publishing, 2004).

KEYWORDS

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4 Educating Language Learners Pages 14-19 Yu Ren Dong Many subject-matter teachers are currently asking themselves how they can help their English language learners.

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 December 2004/January 2005  | Volume 62 | Number 4

		Educating Language Learners
		
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		Teacher Skills to Support English Language Learners
		
		
		
	

	Deborah Short and Jana Echevarria

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 December 2004/January 2005  | Volume 62 | Number 4

		Educating Language Learners
		
		Pages 8-13
		
	

	
		
	
		Teacher Skills to Support English Language Learners
		
		
		
	

	Deborah Short and Jana Echevarria

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4
Educating Language Learners Pages 8-13

Deborah Short and Jana Echevarria

Content-area teachers can provide rich, meaningful lessons that strengthen background information and promote the literacy of students learning English.

Each year, the United States becomes more ethnically and linguistically diverse. Schools mirror this trend: Students from non-English-speaking backgrounds represent the fastest-growing subset of the K-12 student population. In the 2003-2004 school year, 5.5 million school-age children were English language learners (Leos, 2004)-up nearly 100 percent from a decade earlier, although total enrollment increased only slightly more than 10 percent during that time (National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition, 2002).

Unfortunately, as a group, English language learners (ELLs) struggle in school. Compared with native English speakers, ELLs have higher dropout rates and demonstrate significant achievement gaps on state and national assessments (Snow & Biancarosa, 2003; White House Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanic Americans, 1999). As they strive to meet high academic standards, ELLs face the added challenge of learning, comprehending, and applying the academic English through which teachers and textbooks deliver important information. Those who teach these students must take into consideration their special language acquisition needs.

Not All the Same

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Teacher Skills to Support English Language Learners

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4 Educating Language Learners Pages 8-13 Deborah Short and Jana Echevarria Content-area teachers can provide rich, meaningful lessons that strengthen background information and promote the literacy of students learning English. Each year, the United States becomes more ethnically and linguistically diverse.

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		Perspectives / A Look at Language Learning
		
		
		
	

	Amy M. Azzam

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3)December 2004/January 2005  | Volume 62 | Number 4

		Educating Language Learners
		
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		Perspectives / A Look at Language Learning
		
		
		
	

	Amy M. Azzam

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4
Educating Language Learners Pages 7-7

Amy M. Azzam

The approximately 1,200 students who attend the United Nations International School in New York City speak as many as 70 different languages (p. 64). Mais oui, you might say, of course! What else would you expect from an international school? But what if a school district has students who speak more than 70 different languages-75, to be exact-and what if they come from 99 different countries? Surely there's something international about that. Mais non, we'd reply. That's the Arlington, Virginia, public school system.

The fact is, many schools are increasingly looking "international" because diversity in the United States-both ethnic and linguistic-is growing at a clip. At a recent English Language Learners summit held in Washington, D.C., this past fall, Harold Hodgkinson, Director of the Center for Demographic Policy at the Institute for Educational Leadership, showed us the numbers, and they speak for themselves. A new wave of immigration is rolling in from such countries as Mexico, the Philippines, Korea, China, Taiwan, India, Vietnam, and Cuba. Also, the Hispanic birthrate in the United States has far outstripped the birthrates of either whites or blacks. Said Hodgkinson, "You can count your kindergarten class by the numbers. The future has already been born."

What does all this mean for educators? That you'll most likely end up with English language learners from a variety of backgrounds in your classrooms. Yet recent statistics show that fewer than 13 percent of teachers in the United States have received any professional development designed to help them effectively teach this growing population of students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002). Factor into this general lack of training the No Child Left Behind Act's emphasis on high-stakes testing and accountability, with its implications for English language learners. Factor in the enormous diversity in terms of language and proficiency within this population of learners. Finally, factor in the still-unsettled debate about how best to serve these students. What have you got? One complex situation.

This issue of Educational Leadership tackles the complexity of language learning from a number of perspectives. Our authors respond to the pressing needs of content teachers, who require clear strategies to effectively teach in classrooms that include increasing numbers of English language learners. The good news is that teachers do not need to master a whole new set of pedagogical tools to engage these students. But they do need to integrate various supports. For example, students master colloquial English more easily than academic English-the English that schools increasingly use in the upper grades and that high-stakes testing relies on. Several of our authors suggest ways in which teachers can incorporate academic language objectives into their daily lesson plans (see "Teacher Skills to Support English Language Learners," p. 8; "The English They Need for the Test," p. 45; and "The Third Language of Academic English," p. 60).

The issue also takes a look at the program landscape-the various bilingual education, immersion, and sheltered English instruction programs currently used in schools. In "Skyrocketing Scores: An Urban Legend" (p. 37), Stephen Krashen's review of the research suggests that bilingual education is more effective than English-only programs in promoting English language learners' acquisition of literacy in English and their mastery of subject-matter knowledge. But the landscape is slippery at best: The various programs, according to Christine Rossell ("Teaching English Through English," p. 32), tend to blur around the edges.

With so many challenges confronting educators, language can sometimes appear to be an obstacle rather than a social and academic asset. Just as language is not a liability, it's also not necessarily a luxury. In the United States, many people still see learning a foreign language as just that-a luxury-whereas the European Union holds multilingualism as a "basic necessity" for its citizens (see "Language Learning: A Worldwide Perspective," p. 24).

Judy Abrams and Julia Ferguson (p. 66) recount how an English language learner reacted to this line of poetry from Nina Cassian: "Where the arm had been torn away a wing grew" (1976). The student exclaimed, "That's just like us learning English!" Even though there is pain and struggle in learning a new language, there is also hope. Language does operate as wings because it takes all of us to places where we would otherwise never go.

References

Cassian, N. (1976). A man. In R. MacGregor-Hastie (Ed., Trans.), Anthology of contemporary Romanian poetry. London: Peter Owen.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). 1999-2000 Schools and staffing survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
Amy M. Azzam Associate Editor

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A Look at Language Learning - Educational Leadership

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December 2004/January 2005 | Volume 62 | Number 4 Educating Language Learners Pages 7-7 Amy M. Azzam The approximately 1,200 students who attend the United Nations International School in New York City speak as many as 70 different languages (p. 64). Mais oui, you might say, of course!

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 Getting Started with English Language Learners

	by Judie Haynes

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 Getting Started with English Language Learners

	by Judie Haynes

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http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/106048/chapters/How-Students-Acquire-Social-and-Academic-Language.aspx

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by Judie Haynes

Some of the most pressing and frequent questions administrators, board members, and classroom teachers ask are "How long should it take a newcomer to learn English?" and "What kinds of programs help ELLs acquire English quickly?" In this chapter, we explore the answers to these questions, analyze the essential theories in second-language acquisition, and examine the differences between social and academic English.

As you read the statements below, decide whether you think they are true or false.

□ English language learners need one to three years to master social language in the classroom.

□ Students don't always acquire social language naturally in informal contexts. They may need to be taught how to communicate appropriately in social situations.

□ Although English language learners may speak English on the playground, this does not mean they have mastered the academic and cognitive language of the classroom.

□ Learning academic subjects in their native language helps ELLs learn English.

□ Parents of English language learners should be encouraged to speak their primary language at home.

□ Students who have strong literacy skills in their native language will learn English faster.

□ Students need more than two to three years in bilingual or ESL classes to succeed in school.

Social Language and the English Language Learner

Social language is the language of the playground. Researcher Jim Cummins calls this language Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills or BICS (Cummins, 1981, 1996). Newcomers use BICS to function socially in hallways, classrooms, school buses, and playgrounds. Cummins's research shows that it takes one to three years for English language learners to reach the social language level of their peers.

The context of social language is embedded. For example, if a student wants a drink of water, he can ask for it by making a drinking motion and saying the word water. Newcomers have support for BICS because they can use gestures, objects, and pictures to help make the information comprehensible. English language learners who are in the beginning stages are able to handle the following tasks:

Produce survival vocabulary such as the words for water orbathroom.

Follow simple directions that are accompanied by gestures such as "Point to the door" or "Walk to the chair."

Engage in one-to-one social conversation using gestures.

Answer low-level questions such as "Is an elephant large or small?" or "What color is the chair?"

Participate effectively in hands-on classes such as art and physical education.

Play uncomplicated games, particularly games that they play well in their native language, such as checkers, chess, or backgammon.

Produce simple drawings, charts, and graphs.

Context-Reduced Social Language Activities

As we learned in the previous section, social interactions are usually context embedded. These interactions occur in meaningful social settings and most likely they are not cognitively demanding. As your newcomers' listening and oral language skills start to develop, they will be able to add more challenging activities to their repertoire and the context and social cues for these interactions will be reduced. Some context-reduced social language activities include the following:

Holding predictable conversations with teachers and peers. For example, the student might tell the teacher during a math lesson, "I don't understand." The teacher can demonstrate the math concept using manipulatives and drawings to help the student comprehend.

Decoding simple reading passages. ELLs will be able to sound out words, but they may not comprehend what they are reading.

Copying words and sentences from the board.

Reading a weekly school schedule or a homework assignment.

Listening to and understanding a simple story.

Responding to and writing answers for short informational questions. For example, for a history unit on the Pilgrims, a teacher can test literal comprehension by asking, "What was name of the Pilgrims' ship?

Executing answers to questions about a chart or map, such as "Find Mexico on the map and label it."

Understanding and communicating knowledge about math facts. At this stage, however, students will not be ready to learn difficult math concepts.

Interacting socially with classmates. English language learners should be able to ask for help with their schoolwork or understand a teacher's instructions for a game.

Newcomers will be able to participate in context-reduced activities during their content-area classes as well. These activities include science experiments, content-related craft projects, and language arts assignments involving drawings, bookmarks, book covers, and dioramas.
How Do Students Acquire Social Language?

Does social language need to be taught and practiced or do students pick it up automatically on the playground or in the lunchroom? English language learners may need to be specifically taught interpersonal skills such as how to greet people, give and receive compliments, apologize, and make polite requests. They also need to understand nonverbal language and the use of personal space. The goal of Standard 1 of the 2006 PreK-12 English language proficiency standards is for ELLs to learn to communicate in English for social and instructional purposes during the school day. This goal is important because many ELLs need to learn the appropriate voice tones, volume, and language for different school settings. For example, some ELLs speak to a teacher in the same way that they talk to a peer, such as Min Ki in the next example.

→ Min Ki is a beginning ELL from Korea. Although his English is quite limited, Min Ki is adept at picking up expressions on the playground. During recess one day he learned to say "Yeah, yeah, yeah." Whenever Ms. Chen, his classroom teacher, gave directions, Min Ki would reply, "Yeah, yeah, yeah." The teacher finally had to ask an adult volunteer to explain to him that this is inappropriate language for a child to use with an adult. In this setting, an adult had to teach Min Ki that there is a difference between language used with an adult and language used with friends on the playground.

Another example of improper language in the classroom is swearing. ELLs may pick up inappropriate language on the playground and may not realize why this language is not suitable in the classroom. In the next example, Vadim's teacher tries to convey the seriousness of his inappropriate language.

→ Vadim, a 4th grade student from Russia, used an X-rated expression in the classroom. The teacher was understandably distressed and made Vadim write an apology letter for homework. The teacher became even more upset when Vadim's parents did not take the infraction seriously. What the teacher did not know, however, was that Vadim's parents were not appalled because swearing does not have the same shock value in a person's second language as it does in a person's first language.

Many newcomers in middle school and high school say that they are learning academic language but have few opportunities to practice social language. Most of their social interactions are with students with the same native language background. In the next example, we look at Carmen and Diego and their social language skills.

→ Carmen is an English language learner from the Dominican Republic who attends a suburban middle school. She is a very good student who works hard and has quickly acquired academic English; however, she socializes only with classmates who speak Spanish. Her social language in English is slow and hesitant. She has difficulty initiating a conversation in English. Her Brazilian classmate Diego, on the other hand, is athletic and plays soccer with the boys from his class. Because Diego interacts with many English-speaking teammates, his social English is quite fluent.

Social language comes easier to students who have real reasons to speak with their classmates. Organized school activities such as sports teams, band, or chorus can expose ELLs to social English.

Role playing, teacher modeling, peer modeling, and videos are all good tools for teaching ELLs social skills. Teachers can encourage newcomers to observe their peers as models of correct behavior. Teachers should set expectations for these behaviors by using real incidents that come up in the class such as having students practice saying good morning and good-bye to their teachers and classmates. In the next example, Mrs. Arena teaches her students simple language for social interactions.

→ Mrs. Arena is a kindergarten teacher who stands at her classroom door at the end of the day. She shakes hands and says good-bye to students as they leave. She uses each child's name and intersperses her farewells with comments. A typical exchange might be:
"Good-bye, Juan. Have fun at the park," Mrs. Arena says.

"Good-bye, Mrs. Arena," replies Juan. "See you tomorrow."

Mrs. Arena makes an everyday classroom routine a valuable lesson in social interaction and small talk. As students leave the playground after school, they say good-bye to each other using the same farewells modeled earlier by the teacher.

Evaluating the Silent Period

How does a teacher know when a child is ready to speak? When should an ELL be encouraged to participate in the standard social language of the classroom?

Mi Yeon is a Korean student who has been in the United States for 18 months. Although she is progressing in her academic work, she barely speaks to her teachers. Even when prompted, she will not say good morning or good-bye to them when she enters and leaves the classroom. One of her teachers, Mrs. Burns-Paterson, has not forced the issue because she knows about the silent period and does not want to traumatize Mi Yeon. Let's take a look at how Mrs. Burns-Paterson helps guide Mi Yeon through the silent period.

→ Mrs. Burns-Paterson decided to set realistic expectations for routine social exchanges in the classroom. She didn't want to single Mi Yeon out, so she gradually added lessons in social language for the whole class. She began by explaining that when they entered the classroom each day, everyone was going to say hello or good morning to the teacher and to the students who sat at their table. She asked several children to act out the greeting. After a week, Mi Yeon successfully participated in this activity.

To further help shy students like Mi Yeon, Ms. Burns-Paterson had her students practice giving compliments. The comments had to be positive and could not be about a classmate's appearance. Students brainstormed a list of compliments they could give each other, such as "I like the way you drew that dinosaur" or "Your handwriting is so neat" or "Your story was interesting. I liked the part where you chased the dog."

We have seen how social language is informally acquired through interactions in classrooms, hallways, cafeterias, and on school buses. Although some social language needs to be modeled and reinforced by the teacher and native English speakers, other social interactions can be picked up by frequent interactions.

Understanding How Students Acquire Academic Language

Teachers and administrators may decide to move students who have social communication skills out of language support services because they sound like native English speakers. ELLs who speak English well in social situations, however, are not necessarily prepared for academic tasks in the classroom. It is crucial for educators to understand the difference between BICS and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

CALP includes language for formal academic learning and for written texts in content areas such as English literature, math, science, and social studies. CALP skills also encompass reading, writing, and thinking about subject-area content material. Students also use CALP skills to compare, classify, synthesize, evaluate, and infer.

Consider this conversation between Mrs. Perez, an 8th grade history teacher, and Carlota, a student from Mexico.

→ Mrs. Perez: Why didn't you do your homework, Carlota? You're going to fail this class.

→ Carlota: I go visit my aunt. She sick. She got something bad with her heart. My uncle drive my mother and me. We bring aunt some food. When I get home, it's too late finish homework.

Carlota's social language is good. She is able to clearly tell Mrs. Perez what happened. Although Carlota makes some errors, they do not impede communication. In contrast, however, Carlota is not doing well in history and her other academic subjects. She has acquired social language, but she still needs help with her academic vocabulary.

Cognitive academic language skills are both abstract and context reduced. Information can be read from a textbook or presented by the teacher with few verbal cues to help students grasp its meaning. Some ELLs struggle to comprehend what they read and have difficulty expressing what they know in writing.

Many students can say all the words in a reading passage and memorize the definitions of vocabulary words but still not comprehend the text. CALP is more than understanding vocabulary and learning academic facts for a test; it also requires students to sharpen their cognitive abilities and learn new concepts.

As students progress in school, teachers are more likely to present material in a lecture format. The content also becomes more cognitively demanding and the vocabulary becomes more specific to each subject area. New ideas and concepts are presented to the students at the same time as the context-reduced language. Textbooks may be written beyond the language level of an English language learner. ELLs may also have limited background knowledge for subjects such as U.S. history. An instructor's teaching style can also affect how English language learners develop CALP skills. Let's compare Carlota's science teacher, Mr. Angelo, with her history teacher, Mrs. Perez.

→ Mrs. Perez gives reading assignments in a textbook that is written above Carlota's English language ability. She presents material by lecturing in front of the classroom. Her tests are not modified for the English language learners in the classroom and she provides very little support for ELLs. On the other hand, Mr. Angelo, Carlota's science teacher, uses simple language to introduce new concepts to his students. He outlines the most important information on the chalkboard. ELLs are given the important vocabulary for the lesson with simple definitions. Students are engaged in group work with partners. To help students prepare for tests, Mr. Angelo gives students a study guide. Needless to say, Carlota's progress in science far exceeds her progress in history.

Connecting Languages

Another concept that is generally accepted in the field of second-language acquisition is Cummins's Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) theory. This model shows the relationship between native language and second language. Cummins says, "Concepts are most readily developed in the first language and, once developed, are accessible through the second language. In other words, what we learn in one language transfers into the new language" (Freeman & Freeman, 1994, p. 176).

This model, often referred to as the "Iceberg Model," is shown in Figure 2.1 (Cummins, 2000). The model shows two peaks above the waterline. One peak represents a student's social language in the primary language and the other peak represents a student's social language in English. Beneath the waterline is one solid iceberg. One side shows a student's academic language proficiency in the primary language and the other side shows academic language proficiency in English. In the middle you can see where academic proficiency in English and the primary language intersect. The overlapping area is called Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP).

Figure 2.1 The Iceberg Model

Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire

Using a Primary Language at Home

School administrators and classroom teachers should encourage parents to speak their native language at home. It is much more beneficial for children to hear fluent native language with a rich vocabulary than it is to hear imperfect, halting English. We learned from the Iceberg Model that academic concepts learned in students' primary language will help them acquire English. In the next example, Isobel and her family try to integrate English into their home life.

→ Isobel's family is from Costa Rica. Her parents speak some English and are literate in Spanish. When Isabel's teacher told them that they should speak English at home, her parents became distressed. They tried to speak English with her at the dinner table, but their conversations were stilted. Isobel's parents no longer felt comfortable asking her about her school, classes, and homework in Spanish. They stopped discussing books and the television news with her. Although the family reverted to their native language at the dinner table after a week of hesitant English, Isobel felt ashamed of her native language. She wished her parents spoke English.

What Isobel's teacher and parents did not know was that by reading and discussing stories with her and by encouraging Isobel to share her school experiences in Spanish, they were giving her experiences in their native language. Informal conversations like these are critical for Isobel because they will help her establish values and discuss ideas that she is not ready to learn in English. Eventually, what she learns in Spanish will help promote her English proficiency. The concepts and skills that students learn in one language will transfer to the second language when the learner is ready.

Students who are literate in their native language have many skills to draw on when they learn academic English, even when the writing system is different. It is more difficult to teach a concept if it does not exist in the student's native language. Once students grasp the underlying literacy skills of one language, they can use these same skills to learn another language. For example, 10th graders who are literate in Spanish will understand the underlying process of reading in English. Older students will be able to transfer skills such as scanning, selecting important information, predicting what comes next, and visualizing to enhance comprehension. Younger children who are literate in one language will know that printed words carry meaning, that words can be combined into sentences and paragraphs, and that certain letters stand for certain sounds. Regardless of students' age, a new concept will be difficult to teach if it doesn't exist in the students' native language. Let's take a look at Xiang and her progress in her English class.

→ Xiang is a 6th grade student from China who has been in the United States for three years. Her teacher, Mrs. Rahmin, worries that Xiang does not use articles, plurals, or pronouns. Her verb tenses are usually incorrect. She consistently leaves the s off plural words. Xiang's parents report that she is literate in Mandarin, a Chinese language.

Mrs. Rahmin does not understand that Chinese languages do not have morphological changes to show case, number, and tense. For example, there is no subject-verb agreement and there are no markings at the end of words to denote plurals. There are also no Chinese words that translate into a, an, or the. Because of these differences, it is very difficult for Xiang to master the grammatical features of English that do not exist in Chinese.

How Long Does It Take Students to Learn English?

Classroom teachers, administrators, and school board members frequently ask, "How long does it take a student to learn English?" and "How long should students receive language support?" Let's look at the research.

The most comprehensive research available on English language learners was conducted by Thomas and Collier (1997). They studied the language acquisition of 700,000 English language learners in a longitudinal study from 1982 to 1996. They wanted to find out how long it would take for students with no background in English to reach the performance of a native speaker on norm-referenced tests (50th percentile). In addition, they looked at variables such as socioeconomic status, students' first language, programs used to learn English, and the amount of formal schooling in students' primary language.

Thomas and Collier found that the most significant variable in how long it takes for a student to learn English is the amount of formal schooling students receive in their first language.

In one part of the study, Thomas and Collier researched a group of Asian and Hispanic students from an affluent suburban school district. These students received one to three hours of second-language support per day in a well-regarded ESL program. These students generally exited the ESL program in the first two years. All students were at or above grade level in native language literacy. For this group, Thomas and Collier found these results:

Students ages 8 to 11 years old with two to three years of native language education took five to seven years to test at grade level in English.

Students with little or no formal schooling who arrived in the United States before the age of 8 took 7 to 10 years to reach grade-level norms in English language literacy.

Students who were below grade level in their native language also took 7 to 10 years to reach the 50th percentile. Many of these students never reached grade-level norms.

These data held true regardless of the home language, country of origin, or socioeconomic status.
Which Program Works?

Many ESL educators believe that English language learners who receive a specific ESL service acquire English faster than students in other types of programs. However, research does not support this belief. Thomas and Collier found that English language learners who received all of their schooling in English performed extremely well in kindergarten through 3rd grade, regardless of the type of bilingual or ESL program. These students made dramatic gains in English. However, when they reached the 4th grade and moved through middle school and high school, the performance of students who had been in all-English programs, such as ESL pullouts, fell substantially.

Why did this happen? Native English speakers make an average language gain of 10 months each school year. However, English language learners who had not become literate in their native language, regardless of what that native language was, only made a six- to eight-month gain per school year. As a result, the gap between native English speakers and English language learners in all-English programs widened from the 4th grade through high school (Thomas & Collier, 1997).

Students in two-way bilingual immersion and developmental bilingual programs, however, reach the 50th percentile in both their native language and English by 4th or 5th grade in all subject areas. These students are able to sustain these gains in English, and in some cases they achieve even higher success than native English speakers as they move through their secondary school years.

Bilingual programs are not always more effective than ESL or sheltered content programs. Schools should look beyond a program's label and consider the following:

Are the assigned teachers qualified to teach English language learners?

Are there sufficient materials for the program?

What instructional methods are used?

Are students exited into all-English programs too quickly?

Cummins says, "Quick-exit transitional bilingual education is an inferior model based on an inadequate theoretical assumption; this model aspires to monolingualism and does little to address the causes of bilingual students' underachievement" (Freeman & Freeman, 1998).
What does this research mean for school administrators and supervisors? Bilingual programs are not always feasible, especially in school districts where students come from multiple language backgrounds. Your district can build a better program by taking these key steps:

Give students more time to develop English language academic skills. Don't rush younger students through language support programs.

Provide more support services to underschooled upper elementary and middle school students. Remember that it will take them 7 to 10 years to reach grade-level norms.

Encourage parents to maintain their native language at home. Promote after-school and Saturday instruction in a first language. If your school district has enough students, push for a developmental bilingual or two-way immersion program.

Provide a sheltered English program. A sheltered English program uses simplified English to present subject-specific material to English language learners. For more information on these programs, see Chapter 7.

* * *

Let's review the major points from this chapter:

English language learners need one to three years to master social language skills (BICS) for everyday interactions.

Students may need to be taught how to communicate appropriately in social situations.

Newcomers who speak English on the playground are not necessarily fluent in the academic and cognitive language of the classroom.

Learning academic subjects in their native language helps ELLs learn English.

Parents of English language learners should be encouraged to speak their native language at home.

Students who have strong literacy skills in their native language will learn English faster.

ELLs receiving pullout ESL services do not necessarily make more progress in English than students in dual-language or developmental bilingual programs.

Students need more than two to three years in bilingual or ESL classes to succeed in school.

In this chapter, we looked at the differences between acquiring social and academic language. We examined how students acquire first and second languages and we showed how the common underlying proficiency (CUP) helps students acquire a second language. Finally, we discussed how long it takes for students to acquire academic language in various types of programs.

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How Students Acquire Social and Academic Language

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by Judie Haynes Some of the most pressing and frequent questions administrators, board members, and classroom teachers ask are "How long should it take a newcomer to learn English?" and "What kinds of programs help ELLs acquire English quickly?"

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Using ESL teaching methods to reach bilingual learners in an English speaking classroom.

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http://www.ascd.org/publications/curriculum-update/fall2002/English-as-a-Second-Language-%28ESL%29-Web-Resources.aspx

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Fall 2002
Language Learning

National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition (NCELA)
http://www.ncela.gwu.edu
Formerly the National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, this federally funded organization provides a wide range of resources on teaching English in culturally diverse classrooms. Check out the In the Classroom section for practical resources such as the Toolkit for Effective Instruction of English Learners, which offers classroom strategies that include both theory and concrete examples available online.

Center for Applied Linguistics
http://www.cal.org
The Center for Applied Linguistics in Washington, D.C., aims to improve the teaching and learning of languages through its research and resources. Information on the Web site includes guidance on helping young learners transfer their reading skills from Spanish to English and the benefits of valuing and preserving heritage languages. Extensive resources for K-12 ESL teachers and curriculum specialists are available, including relevant public policy issues and information.

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
http://www.tesol.org/index.html
This international educational association (approximately 14,000 members in 140 countries) seeks to develop the expertise of its members who teach English to speakers of other languages. On their site you'll find information about teaching standards, professional development opportunities, and a variety of publications. Among its valuable features are brief stories from TESOL members around the world sharing their experiences, successes, and teaching challenges.

ESL Lesson Plans and Resources
http://www.csun.edu/~hcedu013/eslplans.html
A seemingly endless ESL portal for teachers and students. Among the links, check out Suzanne Medina's ESL Through Music site, which offers ideas for integrating music into English instruction and includes lesson plans from around the world.

U.S. Department of Education: English Language Acquisition Office
http://www.ed.gov/offices/OBEMLA/index.html
Go to this site to learn about guidelines for federally funded programs for English language and foreign language acquisition.

National Association of Bilingual Education (NABE)
http://www.nabe.org
NABE, which recently celebrated its 25 th anniversary, promotes bilingual education through its publications, including the Bilingual Research Journal and NABE News.

California Association for Bilingual Education
http://www.bilingualeducation.org/news.htm
From a state with extensive experience in bilingual education, this site presents detailed case studies about successful school-based programs in California.

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English as a Second Language (ESL) Web Resources

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Fall 2002 Language Learning http://www.ncela.gwu.edu Formerly the National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, this federally funded organization provides a wide range of resources on teaching English in culturally diverse classrooms. Check out the In the Classroom section for practical resources such as the Toolkit for Effective Instruction of English Learners, which offers classroom strategies that include both theory and concrete examples available online.

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Classroom Instruction That Works with English Language Learners Facilitators Guide

Jane D. Hill, Cynthia L. Bjork