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Invented by the Wright brothers

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Invented by Henry Bessemer

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Industry would be unthinkable without affordable steel. Claudia Flavell-While charts the significance of Henry Bessemer's process innovation

IF the industrial revolution was built on steel, then the father of the industrial revolution was Henry Bessemer. It was the Bessemer process that made steel available in industrial quantities at an affordable price.
Patented in 1855, the Bessemer process decreased the cost of steel from £50-60/t ($80-95/t) to £6-7/t ($9-11/t), hand-in-hand with vast increases in scale and speed of steel production. Steel girders for bridges, buildings, railroads, skyscrapers - all were unimaginable before Bessemer. The same goes for modern steel ships, steel wire, high-pressure boilers (and with them, the steam engine), not to mention turbines for power generation. It's an impressive list that underpins just about everything we recognise as modern life.

Henry Bessemer was born in 1813 near Hitchin in Hertfordshire, UK. His father, Anthony, spent some years working for the Paris Mint, where he had developed a machine for the production of steel dies that was used to make medallions. While there are no records of Bessemer having received any kind of formal further education, he did gain some experience in metallurgy in his father's foundry.

An inventive mind

Throughout his life, Bessemer was a prolific inventor, and he had at least 117 patents to his name. The patents largely revolve around manufacturing processes, spanning iron, steel, sugar, glass, ordnance, and even a ship with gimbal-mounted cabins so that passengers would not get sea-sick (as Bessemer himself frequently did).

Among his early inventions are a machine for the production of very fine brass powder (used to make 'gold' paint) at 1/40th the cost of the then-standard process; a typesetting machine; a way of compressing graphite powder into solid graphite for pencils; and a screw extruder for extracting sugar from sugar cane. Not all his inventions were commercial successes: a 1848 process for producing a continuous strip of plate glass did not find commercial backing - but the experience with furnaces that Bessemer gained from the exercise proved to be invaluable.

Bessemer's interest in steelmaking was sparked by the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1853. His first war-inspired invention was a grooved artillery projectiles that could be fired from smooth-bore guns. But the French commandant to which Bessemer was demonstrating the projectiles believed that they were too heavy to be fired safely from cast iron guns, which were notorious for shattering. Bessemer knew that steel would not have this limitation, but its cost at the time made it far too expensive to use in mass-produced weapons.

At the time, steel - essentially de-carbonised iron with a few added other elements - was far too expensive to be used in any large quantities and its application was restricted to cutlery, springs, and the like. The main source of steel at the time was so-called Blister steel, produced by heating carbon-free wrought iron from Sweden, which was naturally low in impurities, between layers of coal for up to six weeks at a time. This did add sufficient carbon to produce steel, but was a very laborious and time-consuming process. Instead, engineers used cast iron for everything from bridges to ships and railway rails.

Bessemer set out to find a way of making steel from brittle pig iron, which contains significant amounts of carbon. For his initial experiments he used a reverbatory furnace, which isolates the metal from the combustion fuel. But during a test, a few pieces of pig iron laying a little to one side in the stream of hot air refused to melt,even when Bessemer raised the temperature. After a while, Bessemer discovered that contact with the hot air alone had turned the outside of the ingots into steel shells. He later wrote in his autobiography: "Thus a new direction was given to my thoughts, and after due deliberation I became convinced that if air could be brought into contact with a sufficiently extensive surface of molten crude iron, it would rapidly convert it into malleable iron." (Unbeknown to Bessemer, the American William Kelly had made a very similar discovery around the same time, though financial troubles would later force him to sell his patent to Bessemer.)

Bessemer reconfigured his furnace to force cold air straight through the molten iron, even though his foundry workers told him the idea was foolish and the air would cool the iron. But Bessemer was proved right: airflow causes silicon and carbon to oxidise in an exothermic reaction, which - counterintutively - raises the temperature of the process.

Taming a volcano

The first time he tried the new process, Bessemer would discover just how violent this reaction could be. He wrote: "All went on quietly for about ten minutes; sparks such as are commonly seen when tapping a cupola, accompanied by hot gases, ascended through the opening on the top of the converter, just as I supposed would be the case. But soon after, a rapid change took place; in fact, the silicon had been quietly consumed, and the oxygen, next uniting with the carbon, sent up an ever-increasing stream of sparks and a voluminous white flame. Then followed a succession of mild explosions, throwing molten slags and splashes of metal high up into the air, the apparatus becoming a veritable volcano in a state of active eruption. No one could approach the converter to turn off the blast, and some low, flat, zinc-covered roofs, close at hand were in danger of being set on fire by the shower of red-hot matter falling on them. All this was a revelation to me, as I had in no way anticipated such violent results. However, in ten minutes more the eruption had ceased, the flame died down, and the process was complete. On tapping the converter into a shallow pan or ladle, and forming the metal into an ingot, it was found to be wholly decarburised malleable iron."

All attempts to make the reaction less fierce failed and Bessemer concluded that speed (the whole process was complete in around 20 minutes), extreme heat and violent eruptions were all the necessary hallmarks of successful steel production. Instead, he devoted considerable time and thought to designing a reaction vessel that would contain the process as safely as possible.

After some experimentation, he designed the reaction vessel as a long ovoid with plenty of headroom for molten metal to spark and erupt without leaving the converter, and the characteristic offset outlet, or 'mouth'. The converter was pivoted on trunnions so that it could be tilted to receive the charge and pour the molten steel into ladles or moulds. The capacity varied between 8-30 t of molten iron, though most converters were designed to carry a charge of 15 t.

The process was patented in 1855, though iron companies initially failed to produce the high-quality steel they'd expected; excess oxygen left the steel brittle and it was difficult to retain the right quantity(of between 0.2-2.1% by weight) of carbon in the steel. Bessemer's solution, which was to stop the airflow before all the carbon was converted, took a lot of trial and error to perfect. An easier solution was proposed by the metallurgist Robert Mushet, who suggested burning off all the carbon and then adding a precise quantity of Spiegeleisen, an iron-carbon-manganese alloy. This made it relatively straightforward to ensure the steel contained precisely the right quantity of carbon, while the manganese removed excess oxygen from the steel. This improved Bessemer process was first licensed in 1865, to the Dowlais Iron Company in Wales.

From Sheffield to Detroit

Bessemer also decided to commercialise the process himself and in 1859 founded the steel firm Henry Bessemer and Company in Sheffield, which already had a worldwide reputation for its steelmaking expertise. In the US, the earliest Bessemer converters were built near the city of Detroit, the starting point for the city's later rise as the capital of the North American car industry.

Even with Mushet's improvements, Bessemer's process was unable to remove excess phosphorus, which caused the steel to be brittle unless it was produced from non-phosphoric iron. That problem was eventually solved in 1879 by Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, who introduced a refractory lining to the converter. Depending on the quality of raw iron being smelted, the refractory lining can either consist of clay (known as the acid Bessemer process, and used for non-phosphoric iron) or dolomite, limestone or magnesite. In this so-called basic Bessemer, the lime reacts with the phosphorus to form phosphate of lime, which can be removed and used as an agricultural fertiliser.

The Bessemer process remained in use for over 100 years, and the final Bessemer converter only ceased production in 1968. Today, the process has been replaced by the electric arc furnace and the basic oxygen process, which allows more scope to add alloys, and offers more time to analyse the chemical composition of the steel. Bessemer converters also struggled to remove phosphorus from steel and did not lend themselves to recycling significant quantities of scrap metal.

When Henry Bessemer died in 1898, he had become a very wealthy man, and had lived to appreciate the huge impact of his innovation. At the time, the global annual production of Bessemer steel ran to £84m - an astronomical sum for the time. Bessemer's son, Henry Jr, estimated that a column of solid gold worth £84m would have to be 5 ft (1.50 m) in diameter and over 109 ft high. Henry Jr remarked: "It is an interesting fact that the statistics [...] show that it would take more than three years' production of all the gold mines in the world to pay in gold for one year's production of Bessemer steel."
Originally published in November 2010

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Industry would be unthinkable without affordable steel. Claudia Flavell-While charts the significance of Henry Bessemer's process innovation IF the industrial revolution was built on steel, then the father of the industrial revolution was Henry Bessemer. It was the Bessemer process that made steel available in industrial quantities at an affordable price.

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1. Infer the effects of the telephone.
2. How did this invention impact other industries?
3. Cite one significant piece of evidence from the website.

1. The telephone made communication more efficient. People could communicate over long distances.
2. The telephone allowed industries to communicate with one another .  This helped businesses reach more customers.
3. "It led to instant communications around the world and even led to the Internet." World leaders would be able to communicate with each other and similar technology enabled the internet to be created.

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The revolutionary vehicle saw the placement of the steering wheel on the left side, allowing passengers easy access to and from the cars. The vehicle was also the first to have its engine block and the crankcase cast as a single unit, the first to have a removable cylinder head for easy access, and the first to make such extensive use of the lightweight but strong alloy known as vanadium steel. The Model T's agile transmission made shifting gears easy for everyone. These improvements and innovations allowed the world to move towards a more urban way of life. The early Model T came with a tool kit, packed the gas tank under the front passenger seat, provided a windshield as an option (before it was standardized), and had to be cranked to get it going.

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The revolutionary vehicle saw the placement of the steering wheel on the left side, allowing passengers easy access to and from the cars. The vehicle was also the first to have its engine block and the crankcase cast as a single unit, the first to have a removable cylinder head for easy access, and the first to make such extensive use of the lightweight but strong alloy known as vanadium steel.

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Invented by Christopher Sholes

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Invented by Thomas Edison

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The Classroom | Empowering Students in Their College Journey

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The invention of the incandescent light bulb is often seen as a major historical milestone. This landmark product, first appearing in the late 1800s according to IdeaFinder.com, helped revolution human society and spur further advancements. The societal impact of the light bulb is multi-tiered, but it can most succinctly be expressed in terms of work, leisure, and safety.

Working Hours

One of the most notable impacts of the light bulb was that it made longer work hours possible. While a longer work week often meant abuse of the working class, increased nighttime productivity helped spur industrial advancements.

Workplace Safety

Increased luminescence in the workplace helped make it easier for laborers to see potential workplace hazards. While safety standards were admittedly poor in the late 1800s, the light bulb did help make moderate improvements.

Home Safety

Candles and oil-based lamps were dangerous fire hazards, leading to many yearly deaths. The light bulb made for a safer nighttime home environment.

Leisure Hours

While many people found themselves working later, they also found that increased nighttime luminosity made it possible to enjoy leisure activities late into the night.

Leisure Activities

Prior to the light bulb, electricity was mainly used in industrial centers. With the light bulb, many homes installed electric outlets; the light bulb made it possible for electric radios, televisions and eventually video game systems to enter the home.

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The invention of the incandescent light bulb is often seen as a major historical milestone. This landmark product, first appearing in the late 1800s according to IdeaFinder.com, helped revolution human society and spur further advancements. The societal impact of the light bulb is multi-tiered, but it can most succinctly be expressed in terms of work, leisure, and safety.

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Invented by Elisha Graves Otis

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The telephone had a large impact, it made business more efficient and it saved money from having to travel back and forth from far places, and it made transactions able to occur more quickly. It led to instant communications around the world and even led to the Internet. The telephone also opened up many new job opportunities by starting new companies and building and making more telephones for the rest of the country and world. If you didn't have the telephone then how would you contact people? You wouldn't be able to easily. If you wanted to talk to people you would have to go to their house, meet them somewhere, or write to them. That would be hard. The world's communication has been upgraded greatly by the telephone.

Before the invention of telephones, mail was a large part of life. This was mainly because it was the only way of communication. Telephones are a huge part of today's life. As telephones became more and more advanced they also became more and more popular. Now it is the most common way of communication. Our modern day telephone system has made our communication system more unified and almost in real time. Telephone has bridged the gap of long distance communication.

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The telephone had a large impact, it made business more efficient and it saved money from having to travel back and forth from far places, and it made transactions able to occur more quickly. It led to instant communications around the world and even led to the Internet.

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1. Infer the effects of the lightbulb.  (Make a connection to the 2nd Ind. Rev.)
2. How did the lightbulb affect workers during this time?
3. Cite one significant piece of evidence from the website. Analyze your evidence.

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1. Infer the effects of the airplane. (Make a connection to the 2nd Ind. Rev.)
2. How did the plane impact other industries?
3. Cite one piece of evidence from the website.  Analyze your evidence.

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1. Explain the purpose of this invention.
2. Infer the effects of the Bessemer Process .
3. Infer the effect this invention had on the price of steel.  Explain.
4. Cite one significant piece of evidence from the website.  Analyze  your evidence.

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1. Infer the effects of the Model-T. (Make a connection to the 2nd Ind. Rev.)
2. How was Ford able to make the Model-T affordable?
3. Cite one significant piece of evidence from the document. Analyze your evidence.

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1. Infer the effects of the elevator.
2. How did this invention impact other industries?
3. Cite one significant piece of evidence from the website. Analyze your evidence.

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1. Infer the effects of the typewriter. (Make a connection to the 2nd Ind. Rev.)
2. How did the typewriter impact other industries?
3. Cite one significant piece of evidence from the document. Analyze your evidence.

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2.The lightbulb both had a negative and positive effect on workers during this time. One negative thing is that now because of the lightbulb they could work after hours and the upper class abused that. However now they could be safer both at home and at work. They could not have a less of a possibility of a fire. Also they could also now see hazard things in the dark.

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2. How did the lightbulb affect workers during this time?
The lightbulb affected workers at this time because they had to work for longer periods of time instead of leaving before dark. It was also safer then the light inventions they made before.

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1)the light bulb could cause fires if not used properly. but it gives light without sending out smoke that can be suffocating and unhealthy. its made with higher tech and it was during the 2nd industrial revolution.

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1) The invention of the air plane had a positive effect because it can allow travel to places without and railroad or road, which means you can go to farther places.

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2) The plane impacted other industries because now people can travel long distances faster and now cargo or goods can be shipped by air.

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3. Cite one significant piece of evidence from the document.  Analyze your evidence.
The invention of a typewriter helped people such as women have jobs, and it also helped these women move from places that could bring them harm or illness from the factories of sowing, into the office and working their way up into a job were they aren't as low on the threshold as they were before.

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2. It effected workers for night time shifts because and they would work longer

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1. The purpose of the Bessemer Process is to make steel at an affordable price for people

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2)it was affordable thanks to the assembly line.it lowered the cost of production, by reducing the time it took to make the car.

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2. How did the typewriter impact other industries?
The typewriter became a stable in workplaces and just reduced time in writing documents. It even fixed the problem of illegible handwriting with less fatigue.

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The airplane was an invention because it was the first item to fly in the air. It impacted other companies to do the same .

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The Bessemer Process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten iron before  the open hearth furnace

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2. It affected the workers by helping them see in the dark better while working.

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Invention because it brought a new version of light without using fire

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The airplane impacted the other industries by being able to transfer things like materials to factories across the world to make their products faster.

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The plane impacted other industries because it allowed companies to ship goods across the world at higher speeds than anything else could

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The light bulb effected the workers and other people to see through the night so they don't get lost on their way home or constructing on a building

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The light bulb allowed for workers to work later times because people could now see in a time that would usually be dark.

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3)  Due to the mass production of the vehicle, Ford Motor Company could sell the vehicle for between $260 and $850 as Henry Ford passed production savings on to his customers.

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This allowed people to contact each other from a distance. People were most likely less active. ~Isfar Babul

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2.The lightbulb affected the workers because they had to work longer during the night shifts

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3) It made steel affordable which is good because steel helped the steel production grow.

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It affected other industries because it set the stage for a new form of transportation that would move very fast and go far. This is also important in military times because supplies needed to be transported fast so it was a lot more effiecient than boats

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The light bulb allowed workers to see in the dark by illuminating the area and made them able to see clearer than using a flame from a candle.

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2) the type writer impacted how people wrote messages or wrote letters fast.

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2.The light bulb increased luminescence in the workplace helped make it easier for laborers to see potential workplace hazards. While safety standards were admittedly poor in the late 1800s, the light bulb did help make moderate improvements.

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1. The lightbulb became a big impact on the 2nd industrial revolution because workers could longer hours in the night or even darker places. It helped navigate and travel safety in dark places and allowed to work night shifts.

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this helped people move faster from one place to another in a large building. -Maha Abdelrahman

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2)it helped make building skyscrapers easier and more safe.

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3. Infer the effect this invention had on the price of steel.  Explain.

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3. Infer the effect this invention had on the price of steel.  Explain.

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Steel was less valuable as it was made in large amounts and people were able to get an abundance of it. Peoples' houses were now more durable as they can afford to use steel. ~Isfar Babul

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The invention is barbed wire, I saw this before :). The purpose of this invention was to create a fence and allow security. It was an inexpensive way to protect areas.

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1. The effects of the airplane makes transportation around the world more easier and faster.

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2.The plane impacted other industries because it allows companies to transfer materials and goods at a higher speed

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The type writer impacted other companies because they no longer had to write every single letter, message, etc. by hand and allowed them to type what they needed to say which was most likely faster.

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2) The typewriter had a good impact on industries because this allowed an efficient way to write papers in a much quicker and neater way.

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1. It impacted because it led more transportation and it was more efficient then walking for 1hr straight you can use a car

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2. How did the plane impact other industries?

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2. How did the plane impact other industries?

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The plane impacted other industries as it allowed for faster travels. This is important as now people can get to better jobs quicker or to carry crates or loads of items to another location for production. ~Isfar Babul

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the telephone had a positive affect because it helped people talk with each other from a distance. - Maha Abdelrahman

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2. The airplane impacted industries because they could carry cargo and even people around way easier. It also gave jobs to people whom wanted to pursue their dreams.

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1. The telephone affects the people by making it easier to talk to people from further distances.

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1) Joseph's swans invention had the effect of making it easier for people to get light in their house, and made it safer as smoke wouldn't have to be in your house or you wouldn't have to get a chimney sweep. - Saara

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Ford was able to make the model-T more affordable by working on the same model more and more so that it was easy for unexperienced workers to make the car. That lead the prices to go down due to the fact that it was easy to build.

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Invention because it invented a new way of movement for people with disabilities.

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1. THE TELEPHONE AFFECTED THE PEOPLE AS NOW MILLIONNS OF PEOPLE CAN NOW COMMMUNICATE FROM STATES COUNTRIES AND EVEN ACROSS THE OCEAN

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1)the elevator would help in going up buildings

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1. Infer the effects of the elevator.
The effects were mostly positive because the elevator was their to help workers move from one place to the other, when Elisha Graves Otis created the elevator is was safe for the workers to get on, it is also what made skyscrapers a reality and not just a far gone dream.

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It made movement efficient especially in skyscrapers.

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affects the people by making it easier to talk to people from further distances

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1. Infer the effects of the elevator.

This invention impacted companies because passengers could get to different floors faster than it would be to take the stairs. The elevator also made skyscrapers more popular.

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2. The airplane impacted industries because the invention created newer ways of import and export making selling and buying things easier

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1.It allowed people to communicate better and any emergencies you can call it was more efficient

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2. How did the lightbulb affect workers during this time?

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2. How did the lightbulb affect workers during this time?

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the lightbulb helped worker see better, like if they worked in the dark the lightbulb helped them see and there were less injuries. - Maha Abdelrahman

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2) The telephone affected other industries as it made it more efficient for people to communicate with others if they needed to talk about something.

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BARBED WIRE WE DID THIS IN THE PAST

WAS MADE TO CREATE SECURITY AND WAS SUPER CHEAP SO IT WAS EFFICENT FOR PRISONS AT THE TIME

WAS ALSO GOOD FOR KEEPING OUT PREDATORS

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This is the barbered wire it was to protect farm animals from predators

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The model T was produced with an assembly line which made it really cheep.

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1) You can drive around without having to walk to farther places

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An affect of the airplane is that the military had a head start on the rest of the world with their weapons in the air.

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its barbed wire, we saw this already. it was efficient to keeping animals inside and intruders out. it can be used in military forces to keep the enemy out ;)

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3) "Candles and oil-based lamps were dangerous fire hazards, leading to many yearly deaths. The light bulb made for a safer nighttime home environment."
This detail shows how the light bulb provided safety at home and would create less of a fire hazard.

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1. The Telephone aloud people to communicate around the world.

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1. the elevator would help with things needing to go in higher places or doing things in higher places as it helped creating the skyscraper

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1) the elevator brake allowed the elevator to stop at whatever floor it is, very efficient in large buildings. workers can analyze the building easier.

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2. THE TYPEWRITER MADE IT EASIER AND MORE EFFICENT FOR LONG BOOKS THAT HAD TO BE RINTED AND SOLD SUCH AS NEWSPAPAERS NOVELS TEXTBOOKS DICTIONARIES ETC

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It made it cheaper to make sky

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The lightbulb affected the workers at the time because it aloud people to work during night time without risk of getting hurt due to not seeing something that could harm you.

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3."Changes in People's Lives. Though it took a while for the typewriter to catch on, it quickly changed the lives of those who used it. Many working-class women saw office jobs as an escape from the drudgery of factory jobs. Office work was a step up in the class structure, a cleaner, higher-paying job." This shows the typewriter open a whole new working place for women and was high pay

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2. The lightbulb affected workers at the time because with the light, they can now work at darker times causing more work to be done.

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2. How did the lightbulb affect workers during this time?
It gave more people time to work, to help in mining areas, A safer use of light and it was better than a candle of fire. A lightbulb was safer, and helped in nighttime and dark areas.

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1. It became easier to write and record information.

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1. the elevator brake effected people by making it easy to build taller buildings.

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2. It affected workers because it gave them more time to work at night. Also, the light bulb is more safer than candles and oil-based lamps.

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2. The plane impacted other industries because it helped people get to other places faster and easier.

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2. The typewriter impacted other industries because it made it easier for people to their their notes.

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2. How was Ford able to make the Model-T affordable?

Because of the mass production of the product they were able to sell it for a very affordable price which led to tons of people to buy the car.