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Physical exercise:
- Exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness.
- We review what happens to your body when you exercise, for example, the body starts to feel more alert and energized.

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Diet and nutrition
Is everything you eat in your daily life, and that in some way affects your lifestyle.
A support document about diet and nutrition is:

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What Is Diet & Nutrition? | Taking Charge of Your Wellbeing

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Nutrition involves relationships with family, friends, nature (the environment), our bodies, our community, and the world.

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Public health issues:
- Issues that happen all around the world and affects the way that our society moves forward to the future, problems that need action to be taken, however, they might be even ignored.
An interesting article about this issue might be:

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top 10 areas of focus as reported by the CDC.
Alcohol-related harms

Approximately 88,000 deaths per year in the United States are attributed to excessive alcohol consumption. The short-term health risks of excessive alcohol use include: injuries such as motor vehicle crashes, falls, drownings and burns; violence such as homicide, suicide and sexual assault; alcohol poisoning; risky sexual behaviors; and miscarriage and stillbirth among pregnant women. Long-term health risks can develop as well: high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, liver disease and digestive problems; cancer; learning and memory problems; mental health problems; social problems; and alcoholism.

Food safety

Foodborne illness sickens one in six Americans each year and results in 3,000 deaths. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) calculates the cost of foodborne illnesses to be $15.6 billion annually. However, foodborne illness is preventable, and the CDC and USDA take a leading role in promoting food safety at the federal level.

Healthcare-associated infections

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) happen when patients are being treated in a healthcare facility. Every day, about one in 25 patients in hospitals acquire an HAI such as central line-associated bloodstream infections, catheter-associated urinary tract infections and surgical site infections. The CDC and its partners have developed tools and resources to prevent HAIs.

Heart disease and stroke

Both heart disease and stroke are leading causes of death in the United States. About 610,000 people die of heart disease each year. Prevention focuses on addressing high blood pressure, high LDL cholesterol and smoking. Meanwhile, there are about 130,000 deaths due to stroke annually. Because stroke can affect mobility, it is a major cause of disability as well.

HIV

The number of new HIV diagnoses is declining, but about 44,000 people were diagnosed with HIV in 2014. In total, approximately 1.2 million Americans are living with HIV, and about 13 percent do not know they are infected. Nearly 7,000 people per year die from HIV and AIDS. Educating the population about ways to prevent HIV infection, from abstinence to correct use of condoms to never sharing needles, continues to be important.

Motor vehicle injuries

More than 32,000 people die and another 2 million sustain injuries from motor vehicle accidents each year. One-third of deaths involve drunk driving and almost another third involve speeding. The CDC emphasizes seat belt use for adults, car seat use for children and driving without distractions or impairments like alcohol and drugs.

Nutrition, physical activity and obesity

The general population is aware that poor nutrition, lack of physical activity and obesity are causing numerous health problems. The CDC is tackling this complex public health issue beginning with schools, which should provide a quality meal program and ensure only healthy foods and beverages are available to students. As part of obesity prevention, multiple organizations can help individuals know their body mass index, maintain a healthy weight and incorporate physical activity into their lives.

Prescription drug overdose

The CDC reports that deaths from prescription opioids like oxycodone and hydrocodone have quadrupled since 1999. In response, the CDC has published prescribing guidelines for healthcare providers and encouraged states to adopt prescription drug monitoring programs. There is a push for expanding addiction treatment.

Teen pregnancy

While the rate of teen pregnancy continues to decrease every year, almost 250,000 babies were born to females ages 15-19 in 2014. Teens need support from parents and other trusted adults, who can play an important role in helping them make healthy choices about relationships and sexual activity, the CDC advises.

Tobacco use

Approximately 16.8 percent of adults ages 18 and older smoke, or 40 million Americans. The percentage continues to decline, but smoking is still a prominent health concern in the United States. It is the leading cause of preventable disease and death. The CDC recommends increasing the price of tobacco products, establishing statewide smoke-free policies to protect nonsmokers from secondhand smoke and sustaining tobacco control program funding.

If you are interested in addressing these health issues, you may want to consider a career in public health. Rivier University offers fully online public health degrees at the undergraduate and graduate levels.

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Top 10 Public Health Challenges - Rivier Academics

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In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) monitors top public health issues. Here are the top 10 areas of focus as reported by the CDC. Alcohol-related harms Approximately 88,000 deaths per year in the United States are attributed to excessive alcohol consumption.

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Concepts of beauty and health:
- For beauty the main learning is that this element may vary according to the viewers perspective, based in their own ideas and general factors about then in the environment that they are exposed to.
This idea is best represented by the following video
https://youtu.be/y3tsfkY6Dpk

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Present for habits
We use this voice to talk about habits, or things that we do frequently in our lives, for example:

I usually like my eggs with my bacon.

Some practical information about this is this video explanation:

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Facts, Routine, Habits - The Simple Present - English Lesson

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Present Tense Passive voice
Commonly known as how to say something happened without taking responsibility about it, this tense might be confusing since it has a different structure, for example
The dishes are washed by John.
Some examples about this are:

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There are tons of uses for the passive voice. But rather than reading 30 pages on the matter or listen to a lecturer profess its values, students need practice and application; how to identify, practice, and produce the passive voice.

But before we move on, let's review some basic rules and terms:

What are active and passive sentences?

Here's a quick refresher:

The passive tense "formula"

Remember:

The action verb is in the past participle. This is standard for all use of the passive voice.

The be verb can be modified to change tense. For example:

Dinner was eaten / has been eaten / had been eaten etc.

However, the action verb must remain in the past participle form. It cannot be expressed in the present participle.

Thus the rule for the passive voice is:

Object + be + past participle ( + agent )

Activity 1: Error-spotting

Write these sentences on the whiteboard and ask students to explain why they're wrong.

Activity 2: BINGO - for language accuracy
Warm up:
Ask students to draw a table of 9 cells. Tell the students that they are going to practice using the verb eat. Ask them to write the verb on top of the table. Then ask them to pick a random cell into which they will write the following phrases; teacher reads passive sentences using:

Students can place Xs in the unused cells. The students' cells should all be filled with different tenses. It should look something like this:
Eat
Now the teacher will read the tenses (eg: past perfect). Students will cross out the box that contains this form. Teacher continues to read tense names until one student earns BINGO. Cells filled with Xs count as completed cells (it should happen quite fast). Elicit how to create a continuous form - where does the -ing go? Answer is on the be verb.
Play:
It's time to play for real. Ask students to draw a 9 cell table again. Tell them that all cells will be filled now with the following (not all) tenses (write on the whiteboard):

Students will select whichever ones they want; they cannot choose all of them as they only have 9 cells to fill. Students must write the verb in the passive voice according to the tense, such that the future perfect passive for "eat" is will have been eaten (make sure that students remember to include the be verb - been in this case).

Again, make sure (monitor) that students are writing the sentences in a random order. Once students are finished, explain that BINGO should only be called for horizontal, vertical, or diagonal streaks.

Play the game with the whole class. Teacher reads the tense and calls on a student to say the phrase. Eg:

Teacher: "Past perfect - drive."

Student: "Had been driven."

Play until a winner shouts BINGO. Clap for the winner. Continue playing until SUPER BINGO is called. Clap again.

Tell students to form groups of 3 and create another table of 9 cells. Students should use the remaining tenses that they did not use in the last round. The new verb could be "write". They will continue playing for another 10 minutes (adding up the time to create the table, writing down the phrases, etc). Teacher will call out the tenses and will write down the names of the first winners of each group on the whiteboard, the first group to earn BINGO, and the first student to earn SUPER BINGO.

BINGO assessed students' language accuracy, now it's time for a more independent group task, a way to assess students' fluency:

Activity 3: Production Task - for language fluency

Create a news report (fictional or real) about an environmental event such as a fire, earthquake, tornado, hurricane, tsunami, blizzard etc. Select a location (city or country) and present it to the class, pointing out your use of the passive tense throughout.
Now, it's the students' turn. Here are the "specs" for this project:

Two paragraph limit (dialogue / interview / report).

1-2 minute presentation limit (video / audio format).

More than 6 passive sentences.

3 students per group.

Record your news report with your smartphone and send the file to your teacher.

20 mins to complete report (writing & recording).

Use passive voice to deliver information and conditionals to present situations that could have happened given different circumstances.

Passive eg: The rabbit was rescued by the man.

BONUS: Conditional eg: If the wind hadn't changed so rapidly, the fire wouldn't have spread so quickly.

Remember, your students will need to experience several different approaches to the passive tense before they are able to reproduce it easily and naturally. The great thing about these activities-particularly BINGO-is that they can be returned to (with added complexity) once students' confidence increases and they are able to produce more interesting, complex passive voice sentences. Good luck!

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The passive voice: A brief guide for teachers - EF Teacher Zone Blog

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There are tons of uses for the passive voice. But rather than reading 30 pages on the matter or listen to a lecturer profess its values, students need practice and application; how to identify, practice, and produce the passive voice.

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Present continuous
Also known as present progressive, we use grammar rule when the action is on-going/still going to actions that are happening at the current moment, for example:
I am watching television.

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Present perfect:
We use the present perfect for events at an indefinite time before now, for example
I haven’t been to Paris.
Some great exercises for this tense can be found above

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Practise the present perfect tense - here’s a list of all the present perfect exercises and present perfect continuous exercises and worksheets on this site.

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Present perfect continuous:
We use this kind of expressions when we talk about how long something has been happening, for example
I have been waiting for my results for over a week.
A great explanation about how to use correctly the expressions is at the top.

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Present Perfect Continuous Tense - English grammar tutorial video lesson

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Subcultures:
- Is a group that differs itself from the rest of the other groups that are surrounded by.
Here are some examples of the most influential subcultures among the decade all around the world

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Highsnobiety's founder David Fischer told Digiday in 2017, "Subculture is the new pop culture." And he's right.

From the start, youth subcultures have been in constant conversation with mainstream society, appropriating and remixing its products to their own ends. And though it's common to assign political aims to subcultures, they're not always necessary either. Subcultures can and do exist without overt political identities. They don't need to stand for something or even stand against something. They just need to stand apart, separating themselves from the mainstream by taking aspects of that culture and subverting them in ways that create meaning for participants and members.

That's why sneakerheads, for example, are just as much of a subculture as punks. Sneakerheads take something with a specific intended use and repurpose it to their own needs, subverting its original meaning without political intentions. Take Jordan 11s, sneakers designed to be worn for basketball. They're performance shoes right down to the full-length carbon fiber plates in their soles. So, when a sneakerhead repurposes Jordan 11s as a fashion statement, an icon of commodity fetishization, and a marker of community identity, that original athletic intention has been subverted.

The mainstream wears Jordan 11s for basketball, but sneakerheads wear them as an emblem, creating a whole web of meaning around them that exists outside of athletics. And that's the essence of a subculture.

With that dynamic in mind, we've rounded up the ten most influential subcultures of the 2010s, showing how groups as disparate as skaters and cowboys, goths, and scumbros exercised outsize influence on cultural conversations and fashion trends during this strangest of decades.

Check out the most impactful subcultures of the past decade.

When Highsnobiety founder David Fischer mentioned subcultures to Digiday, he was talking about sneakerheads and hypebeasts, two distinct but intertwined subcultures united by a love of limited drops and rare drip. And though both sneakerheads and hypebeasts date to the 1990s and 2000s, decades which saw them lining up along downtown New York streets in hopes of copping Pigeon Dunks or rare Supreme collaborations, they truly took over during the 2010s.

During this decade, sneakerheads and hypebeasts changed not only youth culture, but also high fashion, influencing staid European labels like Gucci to adopt graphic-heavy, active-inspired clothing and limited drop releases, while sending Virgil Abloh, one of their own, to the pinnacle of success as the first Black artistic director at Louis Vuitton. Streetwear has infiltrated and defined the new luxury market.

Beyond that, sneakerheads and hypebeasts pioneered online reselling, making the notion of buying rare items to "flip" for a profit more mainstream. Flipping became so popular and lucrative during the 2010s, that it inspired a whole new business sector, spurring the creation of sneaker reselling platform StockX and growing apps like DePop into international phenomena, all while injecting sneakerhead and hypebeast slang into mainstream conversations.

Now one's middle-aged mother is just as likely to know what "grail" means in this context as your 14-year-old cousin is. And that's huge. Over the past decade, it's clear, sneakerheads and hypebeasts made the world their own. This modern subculture is probably not going anywhere anytime soon.

Skaters

Like it or not, hypebeasts and sneakerheads are also responsible for the popular influence of skateboarders on fashion during the 2010s, showing the world there was a market for skate-specific footwear and clothing far away from the local ledge spot or plaza. Though real skaters kept things core, looking at fashion's interest in their culture with wary eyes, some couldn't help but spread skate culture and clothing around the world via their other interests.

Enter rap supergroup Odd Future and Tyler the Creator, their skateboarding figurehead, who broke out in 2011, bringing Supreme, Vans Old-Skools, Thrasher hoodies, Huf weed socks, and eventually their own Golf Wang line to the masses. Their success, as well as huge skate videos like Supreme's "cherry" and Lil Wayne's embrace of skateboarding in his 30s, inspired both high fashion fans and other hip hop artists to adopt and produce skate-inspired gear. Thrasher hoodies were particularly popular, appearing in Vogue and on the backs of celebs like Rihanna.

That market saturation forced now-deceased Thrasher editor Jake Phelps to announce that his magazine didn't send boxes of gear to celebs like Justin Bieber. During the 2010s, Kanye West also dressed daughter North West in skatewear staples like Thrasher and Supreme, before releasing the Yeezy 500, an adidas runner that looked just like an éS Scheme, a puffy-shoe icon that first dropped in 2001. That release seemed to spark a frenzy for old-skate-shoe-inspired kicks, with A$AP Rocky working with Under Armour to create the SRLo, a high-concept sneaker that drew obvious inspiration from Osiris's D3 skate shoe.

Now, this subculture seems to be going full circle, with original 2010s skate-influencer Tyler the Creator popping up this month to unveil the GOLF le FLEUR* x Converse Gianno, a puffy trail shoe that also recalls the late '90s phatest skate kicks, including yes, the D3.

Normcore

Ah yes, normcore. You probably remember it. Though satirical trend forecasting K-Hole came up with the term to refer to the novel concept of rebellion through fitting in, normcore didn't blow up until a 2014 New York Magazine article came out detailing how downtown New York scenesters were dressing like suburban moms and dads. From there, it created a firestorm, as mainstream press and actual normies couldn't even conceive of something so seemingly stupid actually existing, while the cool kids-the actual normcore adherents-rejected the term, almost embarrassed at being called out flexing in their white runners, turtlenecks, Crocs, and light-wash jeans.

The young and hip never like to be identified as such, with that kind attention piercing their carefully crafted aloof rebellion. And though the term "normcore" flamed out fast, its influence was massive, affecting fashion and style throughout the 2010s. In normcore's wake, mom jeans and dadcore became huge trends, with the latter aesthetic holding sway over vast swaths of cultural territory, from skaters to high fashion runways, where Balenciaga's Demna Gvasalia made it one of his hallmarks.

Gvasalia dedicated his entire spring 2018 show to the dadcore, while selling loads of chunky, artfully smudged Triple S runners. But that's not all. Shia LaBeouf's intuitive normcore style would also make him a street style star and unexpected Kanye muse, setting the stage for normcore-inspired style subcultures like "scumbro" to emerge later in the decade.

Seapunk

In the past, most subcultures formed in the streets. Now, many form online. And seapunk was a leader in this space as one of the first online subcultures to make it big. But before it went online though, it emerged in a dream. In 2011, video director Lil Internet dreamed about a leather jacket crusted in barnacles instead of metal studs, tweeting about it as soon as he woke up. From there, artist, Lil Internet associate, and Twitter personality Lil Government tweeted #seapunk out into the world with a wink and a nod, where it would be picked up by the New York art pranksters at Dis magazine and teens on Tumblr, before exploding into the wider world.

Eventually, the seapunk aesthetic, which included plenty of aqua, green, and oceanic iconography like shells and dolphins, appeared up on everyone from Rihanna to Lady Gaga, Nicki Minaj to Katy Perry, and of course, Frank Ocean himself. Eventually, seapunk's aesthetic and its related musical genres like vaporwave grew so big even cultural gatekeeper's like The New York Times took notice, covering the subculture and eventually burning it out and, well, sinking it. But seapunk remains iconic as one of the first online subcultures to develop during the decade of smartphone-driven social media.

Roadmen

UK grime first appeared during the 2000s, as artists like London-born Dizze Rascal gave the world its first taste of truly original UK hip-hop. With its minimalist electro beats and vernacular rhymes, no one could mistake grime for a poor imitation of American hip hop. It was unique and it was totally English. Still, grime seemed to disappear from the global stage for a decade, bubbling along in the UK, before reemerging on the global stage in 2015 thanks to artists like Skepta and Stormzy. And a new style subculture also went global in conjunction with the grime renaissance. Alongside grime, the UK roadman, bedecked in tracksuits, technical outerwear, low profile caps, Air Max runners, and the omni-present shoulder bag would become a worldwide fashion obsession.

Roadman, English slang for young guys who hang out in the "roads," is akin to the American "corner dude," but it has a style all its own, updating traditional, sporty UK football casual style for the 21st century. No moment captured the intersection of UK grime and roadman style quite like Skepta's 2015 " Shutdown" video, which saw the emcee and his crew outfitted in enough minimalist sportswear to stock an entire boutique. Though the whole roadman look remains influential today, no item was bigger than the sidebag, a small sling or repurposed fanny pack worn over the shoulder, which was also adopted by skateboarders and active-influenced high fashion lines like Cottweiler and Y-3.

Drillers

Throughout hip hop's history, the Midwest sat outside the mainstream, doing its own thing while the East Coast beefed with the West and the South rose to global domination. Sure, there were outliers like Bone-Thugs-n-Harmony and Kanye West, but even they made their names by partnering with coastal superstars like Eazy-E and Jay Z. Perhaps that's what made Chicago's drill music so unexpected when it emerged around 2011. Coming directly out of the city's poorest South Side neighborhoods, drill spread as talented innovators like King Louie, Chief Keef, and Young Chop posted their work directly to Youtube.

With programs like Fruity Loops and high-resolution cameras increasingly available to all, Chicago drill was a true DIY movement, returning hip hop to an authentic gangster sensibility not seen since the emergence of Schooly D and N.W.A in the late '80s. Like trap, the 2010s' other great hip hop genre, drill relied on digital beats, synths, and distinctive snare sounds, but focused on a colder, more ruthless sound often accented with dark, theatrical strings and bells that echoed older Memphis tape rap.

Drillers like Chief Keef and Fredo Santana also boasted their own unique style, favoring skinny, low-slung True Religion jeans, Jordans, chains, flashy designer belts, and slim T-shirts and hoodies, even as other subcultures moved on to baggier clothing. Drill's sound and aesthetic also proved globally influential, moving from Chicago to Brooklyn and even London, where teenage street gangs used the music and its attendant Youtube videos to boast and taunt "opps," eventually leading to a moral panic in the UK where politicians tried to ban the genre. Sadly, drill's authenticity came at a price, with rappers like Lil Jojo and L'A Capone losing their lives to gun violence, while others, like Fredo Santana passing away due to drug abuse.

Despite those deaths, drill remains among the world's most important modern subcultures today.

Goth

Born in the 1970s, Goth never quite goes away. That might be because its morose, romantic outlook is the perfect encapsulation of teenage ennui. Or maybe it's because black looks good on everyone. Either way, goth was huge during the 2010s, inspiring all sorts of spinoffs and updates, from "street goth" to "health goth" and more. Goths of color fueled much of this creative expansion, as artists like DJ Venus X grew her GHE20G0TH1K parties from local New York phenomenon to global brand, inspiring rappers like A$AP Rocky to come along for the ride. Fashion designers, both new and old, also played a huge role in the 2010s goth explosion.

Hood by Air's Shane Oliver kept rappers, club kids, and celebrities dipped in his neo-goth hip hop gear, while high fashion elders like Rick Owens saw his career rise to new heights. Along the way, goth-made skaters and even rappers want to paint their nails, while inspiring a vast genre of "goth girlfriend" memes and think pieces online. And, as a testament to goth's staying power and importance during the 2010s, none other than Highsnobiety has recently predicted yet another goth comeback.

Yeehaw Agenda

History aficionados know that black people lived and worked in the American West from the start. Many were cowboys, with the range offering African Americans a level of freedom and decent pay that wasn't available in the East of the South. Until recently, that history had largely been forgotten in popular culture, though black cowboys never completely disappeared. Enter the "YeeHaw Agenda," a phrase coined by Texan Bri Malandro in the late 2010s to refer to the renewed popularity of Westernwear and cowboy chic among African Americans.

Though named by Malandro, the cowboy look had been bubbling up among African Americans for a minute, with designer Kerby Jean-Raymond casting the Compton Cowboys and Cowgirls of Color in his fall 2018 Pyer Moss "American Also" campaign. Later that year, Atlanta's Lil Nas X provided the YeeHaw Agenda with a theme song, releasing his hip hop-country mega-smash "Old Town Road," a tune that went viral thanks to the #YeeHawChallenge on TikTok.

Written off as a novelty hit by some, "Old Town Road" proved both incredibly durable and controversial, with Billboard deciding to take it off its Hot Country Songs charts despite its huge popularity. That didn't stop Lil Nas X or the song, as defenders like Billy Ray Cyrus hopped on the tune for remixes that helped "Old Town Road" go Diamond faster than any song in history, moving more than ten million total units in the U.S. alone. At the same time, celebs like Beyonce, Solange, and Megan Thee Stallion helped push the YeeHaw Agenda, adopting the cowboy look in what some saw as a repudiation of Trump's MAGA movement.

Scumbro

The scumbro subculture arose in 2018 at the confluence of Shia LaBeouf's normcore and skate style, as stylists like Karla Welch helped push the look on client Justin Bieber, just as other adherents like Jonah Hill, Pete Davidson, and John Mayer were seen dressing similarly out in the streets. Scumbro style is simple, a mix of skate hoodies, frat boy tie-dye, rare sneakers, and sweatpants worn with a dirtbag nonchalance. Adherents got bonus points if they could grow a wispy mustache.

The scumbro style helped make Jonah Hill an unexpected street style icon, as menswear fans lauded him for his newly independent look that mixed tie-dye and dad caps with Palace gear and new tattoos, just as his skate flick Mid90s gained him acclaim as a director. Scumbro also made Pete Davidson a style icon, as he rode his scumbro look and high profile-relationship with Ariana Grande right into a modeling gig in Alexander Wang's Collection 1 2020 fashion show. Though some publications say scumbro died in 2018, it's scruffy grooming, tie-dye shirts, and scuzzy dad caps remain popular with aspiring dirtbags today.

Eboys

Despite their recent outsize influence on pop culture and mainstream fashion, subcultures remain largely teenage concerns. So it's fitting that teenagers created the final subculture on this list. Just squeaking in towards the end of decade, Eboys and Egirls emerged on Chinese social media app TikTok, where Gen Z has flocked to participate in hashtagged challenges and silly lipsyncing videos. Though the trend is for the young, it harkens back to subcultures of the past, combining elements of '90s grunge with 2000s skater style, MySpace scene kids flare, and even Hot Topic mall goth gloom.

Among the "E," both genders paint their nails, favoring long-sleeved striped T-shirts worn under black graphic tees, all tucked into jeans styled with plenty of wallet chains. Egirls notably wear distinctive eye makeup too, often adding hearts or other small symbols to their cheeks. On the whole, the look reminds viewers that even among the newest subcultures, elements of the past remain important, with young people mixing and matching them to fit the current zeitgeist, in a feedback loop that's unlikely to ever end. If you're feeling inspired, perhaps it's time to level up your wardrobe?

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The Ten Most Influential Subcultures of the Decade

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The trends of the 2000s were largely defined by its most dominant style tribes. Here are the ones that really led the pack in terms of sheer influence.

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Minorities:
- A smaller group inside the majority of our civilization that has less members.
-An example of minorities can be found in the link above

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Environment
The Republic of India is one of the largest countries in the world, sharing a northern frontier with Tibet in the People's Republic of China, and with Nepal and Bhutan. To the north-west it borders Pakistan, to the north-east Burma and to the east Bangladesh. India's great southern peninsula stretches far down into the tropical waters of the Indian Ocean, where its territorial boundaries extend to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep archipelago in the Arabian Sea. In terms of its population, India - after China - is most populous country in the world. It is estimated by the United Nations that India will have a larger population than China by the year 2045, with the projections indicating a total population of India of 1.501 billion and of China of 1.496 billion. Even at present, India is more like a continent than a country, with a population larger than that of Western Europe and the United States.
History
The subcontinent witnessed the horrors of religious division through the experience of partition at the time of independence in 1947. Partition not only took a terrible toll of life, with an estimated 1 million victims, it also gave rise to one of the largest transfers of population in the twentieth century. The threat to India's multicultural, multi-ethnic, multi-religious polity of aggressive Hindu fundamentalism has raised fears among the country's many different religious, ethnic and cultural minorities, regarding the future of India's democratic structures and the role of the state in ensuring the protection of minority rights.

Religion is not, however, the only, or even the most significant, fault line in India's multi-layered polity. Economic transformation, and the lack of it in many cases, has led to the rise of extremism in various parts of India. The issue of language has played an important part in shaping the modern political agenda. The Official Languages Act (1963) established Hindi language as the single official language of India from 1965, with English as an 'associate additional official language'. Such an arrangement was the recipe of massive demonstrations and self-immolations in Tamil Nadu and subsequently stretching to many states. Pressure groups representing a range of issues-from women and the environment to trade unions and unorganized labour-have exerted, and continue to exert, pressure upon the state. Movements with a broad range of political ideologies, sometimes with a radical vision for change, have often created problems for the fragile democratic foundations of the Indian state.
Peoples
Main languages: Hindi (official), English, Urdu

Main religions: Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, Janism, Buddhism, Judaism

Main minority groups include Dalits (scheduled castes) 166.6 million (16%) 2001 Census, Muslims 120 million (13.4%), Adivasis (scheduled tribes) 84 million (8%) 2001 Census including Nagas 100,000 (0.1%); also Christians 25,080,000 (2.4%), Sikhs 14,800,000 (1.9%), Kashmiris 9 million (est., 0.9%); others include Buddhists, Jews 6,000 (BBC News, 2008), Anglo-Indians, Andaman Islanders, Parsis.

India is the birthplace of two of the most widely practised world religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, and has within its borders a greater number of the followers of Islam than any country of the Middle East or North Africa. India could in many ways be described as a nation of minorities, yet it is nevertheless overwhelmingly Hindu. Although Hinduism may be seen as the one unifying thread running through the country as a whole, Hinduism is not a homogeneous religion. Its centuries-old traditions have been shaped by, and have in turn shaped, several different religious and social traditions. More importantly, cultural traditions often have much deeper resonances in India than those shaped by religion.

Amidst India's cultural traditions is rigid caste structure, a continuing symbol of identification and social stratification. 16 per cent of the total population of India consists of the scheduled castes which includes 'Dalits' also known as Harijans, or 'Untouchables'. The Indian constitution requires the government to define a list or schedule of the lowest castes in need of compensatory programmes. There are also within India, a significant population of 8 per cent indigenous peoples, the Adivasis, who are constitutionally described as 'Scheduled Tribes'.

Unlike the large Muslim minority, Christians and Buddhists, do not suffer high levels of discrimination and are not specifically targeted as minorities. Even within the broader Hindu tradition however, many groups have suffered discrimination and persecution. A prime example of the systematic discrimination to which a group may be subjected within Hinduism is evident from the case of the Dalits. The term Dalit, which means 'the oppressed', is an assertive term of self-identity, and as noted above, referred to what in strict legal and constitutional terms are known as the scheduled castes.

India's indigenous peoples, Adivasis, like many other indigenous peoples, might, with justification, claim that they remain victims under alien and colonial domination, even after the departure of the white colonizers. Adivasis of India do not represent a homogenous or unified community. There is a huge amount of diversity amongst the Adivasis: Nagas, although having indigenous claims, have nonetheless a distinct existence and differing political and constitutional aspirations from other Adivasi peoples.

While the exploitation of Adivasis has been a historical as well as a contemporary phenomenon, and their exploitation has gained no respite from developments in post-colonial India, other ethnic and religious minorities became particular casualties of the march towards independence. The two most significant are the Kashmiris and the Sikhs; the issue of their right to existence and to self-determination has resulted in large-scale bloodshed, with tragic consequences. The numerous smaller minorities include Jews, Anglo-Indians and Andaman Islanders.
Governance
India, like many of the countries of the postcolonial world, remains to a great extent an artificial construct of the colonial era. Beneath the surface it is a country burdened with ethnic, religious and linguistic conflicts. There have been fears that India would meet the same fate as the former Yugoslavia or, to a lesser extent, the former Soviet Union. However, it is perhaps remarkable that a state presenting so much diversity in the character of its peoples, religions and civilizations, with an underdeveloped infrastructure and a majority of the population living in poverty, has managed to survive as a viable unit.

Even so, minority issues are increasingly taking centre stage in Indian politics, whether in the form of separatist movements, demands for increased political representation, or the need to provide protection to its many religions and cultures. Many of these conflicts are yet to be resolved, and the challenge for India will be to put in place processes that enable minority problems to be discussed and resolved for the benefit of the country as a whole, while ensuring the collective survival of the many minority peoples who form an integral part of the country.

A worrying feature in the last few years has been the emergence of fundamentalism in India, as elsewhere. Religious chauvinism, for example through the rise of religiously fundamental political parties, has been on the increase and this poses a threat to future communal relations. For the promotion and protection of the rights of the minorities, the traditions of democracy and secularism that have been the characteristic of constitutional and political developments of post-independence India are virtues which need to be preserved.

A change in the political climate also impacted on the position of religious minorities within India. The coalition led by the Hindu Nationalist Party (Bharatiya Janata Party) lost the general parliamentary elections held in April-May 2004 and was succeeded by the Indian National Congress. Notwithstanding a change in the federal government, security forces continued to pursue policies, inter alia, of extra-judicial killings, detentions and torture.

The implication of such policies are particularly tragic for India's religious, ethnic and linguistic minority groups. Arbitrary practices of arrests, detentions and torture are continually deployed against the Muslims in Jammu and Kashmir; courts in Jammu and Kashmir are reluctant to hear cases involving militants and failed to act expeditiously on habeas corpus cases. Jammu and Kashmir has a bitter and painful political history, the roots of the conflict going back to the partition of India in 1947 and leading to three wars between India and Pakistan. The conflict between the Kashmiris and the Indian armed forces has been brutal, resulting in more than 40,000 deaths within the past 15 years.

Since April 2005 (with the visit of Pakistan's Military leader Pervez Musharraf to India) some, albeit slow, progress has been made in developing a peace dialogue. In April 2005 a bus service opened between the two parts of the divided Kashmir. In June 2005, a number of Kashmiri leaders held talks with the Pakistani leader, with a view to advancing the peace initiative. This was followed by the decision at the end of August by the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to hold talks with the Kashmiri separatists. The talks, which were conducted with the moderate wing of the All Parties Hurriyat Conference in Delhi on 5 September 2005, provide cause for optimism: the leader of the Hurriyat-an umbrella group of parties opposed to Indian rule in Kashmir-agreed in principle to denounce all forms of violence within Kashmir. However, in the light of the intransigent stance of all the parties involved in the conflict and the continuing violations of Indian security forces, a resolution to the dispute appears distant. Amidst the current impasse The divisions between the Hurriyat and the hardliners in the negotiating process has been a key issue. This is manifest by a various killings of and attacks on moderate Hurriyat leaders by Pakistan-based hardline militant groups in Kashmir over the last few years.

In addition to the grievances emerging from Kashmir, Muslims of India claim to have suffered persecution and genocide in the state of Gujarat. Muslim leaders condemn the failure of the Gujarat government and the Indian courts to prosecute those involved in the killing of over 2,000 Muslims at the hands of Hindu extremists. In many cases, attempts to hold perpetrators of Gujarat riots accountable were hampered by the allegedly defective manner in which police recorded complaints. There were allegations made by the victims that the police failed to register their complaints or recorded the details in such a way as to lead to lesser charges. Victims complained that the police and governmental authorities deliberately failed to bring charges against prominent people involved in attacks. No appropriate action has been undertaken against those involved in the Gujarat riots. A retrial was ordered in relation to the most serious instance of rioting in Godhra, and arrest warrants were issued for 10 of the 21 accused. In April 2009 the Indian Supreme Court ordered the setting up of six special courts to investigate the religious riots in Gujarat, including the role of Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Mori, member of the Hindu -nationalist Bharativa Janata Party, who is allegedly turned a blind eye to the violent attacks. On the eve of the general elections the trials were said to be a test on the ability of the state to protect minority Muslims in the secular but Hindu-majority India.

There has also been the continuation of another related sectarian Hindu-Muslim dispute over the sacred site of Ayodhya. On 5 July 2005, six men pretending to be tourists used explosives to blast through the wall of the Ayodhya site. Although all the assailants were killed, Hindu nationalist parties such as the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) called for retaliatory action to be taken against Muslim organizations and blamed Pakistan for orchestrating the attack.

The 166.6 million Scheduled Castes (including the Dalits) and the 84.3 million Scheduled Tribes (Adivasis) continue to face discrimination and social segregation in many aspects of public and private life. The Adivasis-who have historically been deemed as outside the ambit of the Hindu Caste system-are consistently discriminated against and suffer from socio-economic marginalisation. Dalits are made the victims of social ostracism, having inadequate access to health care and poor working conditions. Dalit women continued to face 'double discrimination' on the basis of their caste as well as gender-deprived of education and basic health care they were frequently forced into slave-like work and menial labour.

In the light of the egregious and systematic denial of the fundamental rights of the Dalits, the UN, on 19 April 2005 (in an unprecedented move) decided to appoint two Special Rapporteurs to examine the substantial and deep-rooted problem of caste-based discrimination. The special rapporteurs are mandated to study all issues surrounding the discrimination against Dalits and report to the UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights. The three-year process lead to the drafting of a set of Principles and Guidelines aimed at eliminating caste-based discrimination. The final report was officially issued in 2009. It sets out that 'discrimination based on work and descent is a form of discrimination prohibited by international human rights law as proclaimed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' and other key international human rights instruments, and that discrimination based on work and descent is not only a major human rights violation but also major obstacle to development. Furthermore it states the obligation of all States to acknowledge this form of discrimination and take all necessary steps to eliminate and prevent discrimination based on work and descent, including affirmative action. The reports of the special Rapporteurs are not binding upon States; the States themselves having the discretion as to extent to which they adopt the recommends set forth in the reports produced by the special Rapporteurs. In their recommendations to the UN principles and guidelines the International Dalit Solidarity Network called on the UN and states to establish effective follow-up mechanisms.
Tamils
The total Tamil population of India is estimated to be over 60-70 million. The Tamils are primarily the residents of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, the sixth most populated state in the union. Official estimates for Tamil Nadu's population in March 2001 were 62,110,839, accounting for 6 per cent of India's total population. After its initial colonisation by the British East India Company, Tamil Nadu was amalgamated into the Presidency of Madras. Subsequent to gaining independence, in 1956 a new state based on linguistic boundaries - Madras - was established. The name of the Madras State was changed to Tamil Nadu (Land of the Tamils) during 1969.

Tamils are renowned for their art, cultures and traditions. Renowned composers such as Tyagaraja were the products of the Tamil culture and values. Tamil politics has revolved around efforts to obtain recognition of linguistic, ethnic and cultural rights. Demand for linguistic rights have therefore been at the top of the agenda for the Tamils.

In addition, Tamils of India have been at the forefront for campaigning for the rights of the Tamil minority in Sri Lanka. At the same time, there are also allegations of violations of human rights conducted by the Tamils themselves. Thus, for example, at the time of the Hindu- Sikh riots in the aftermath of the Indian Prime Minister Indra Ghandhi's assassination, Tamil Nadu was one of the worst affected region. Similarly after the Coimbatore blasts of 1998, Muslim institutions and businesses were violently attacked. As regards caste-based discrimination, there are currently allegations of large-scale discrimination, in particular against the Dalits.
Boro people
The Boro people share many of the characteristics of the Adivasis and many of their demands characterise those of the other indigenous peoples of India. The Boro people are of the Sino-Tibetan origin among the Mongoloid group, thought to have evolved from the ancient Chinese origins. Their ancient language originates from the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. In addition to a distinct language, Boro people take pride in well-developed traditions and customary tribal values. There are difficulties in establishing the accurate number of the Boro people currently living in India: the official census reports of 1971 advanced a figure of 6,10,459. Subsequent census conducted by the government of India have not presented an accurate figure, although it is estimated that the present population of Boro people is between 6 million to 9 million.

In common with other Adivasis, the Boro peoples are totally dependant on their environment and lands. Ninety-nine per cent of the Boro population lives in the villages and therefore agriculture is the mainstay of their economy. Notwithstanding commercial development and enterprise within India, Boro people have firmly attached themselves to the agrarian mode of production with their lands being an indispensable element of their existence and identity.

Developments in the latter half of the twentieth century have been highly disturbing since over time the Boro people have witnessed encroachment of their lands by outsiders (including East Bengal and Nepal) as well as from peoples from mainland India. This encroachment of lands has had a devastating effect on the socio-political life of the Boro people. It has also brought an unfortunate change in the demography of the region. At present, amidst the four districts of Assam (Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta and Nogaon), the illegal immigrants have become the predominant population and thus the Boro people have turned into ineffective minority exploited, discriminated, dominated and despised by the outsiders. The problem of encroachment of lands has assumed an alarming proportion during 2000-2007 and remains the major grievances of the Boro people.
Anglo-Indians
The Anglo-Indian community is the smallest officially recognized minority group in India. The community originated soon after 1639 when the British East India Company founded a settlement in Madras. The community identified itself with, and was accepted by, the British until 1791, when Anglo-Indians were excluded from positions of authority in the civil, military and marine services in the East India Company. During the Indian rebellion of 1857 the Anglo-Indians sided with the British, and consequently received favoured treatment from the British government in preference to Indians, serving in large numbers in the strategic services of the railways, post and telegraph, and customs. In 1919 the Anglo-Indian community was given one reserved seat in the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi. The English-speaking Anglo-Indians identified themselves with the British against the nationalist Congress Party, despite British attitudes of superiority. After independence in 1947, Anglo-Indians faced a difficult choice: to leave India or to integrate. Many Indians distrusted their pro-British attitudes and Western-oriented culture. Large numbers did leave, mainly for Britain and Australia. The current estimates for the Anglo-Indian population are less than 100,000. In contemporary terms, the Anglo- Indian community is an ageing community and also fast declining in numbers. Most of its younger members have either chosen to emigrate to Britain, Australia or Canada and the few that remain are unlikely to have the numbers or social cohesion to continue as a dynamic community. The key issues faced by the community in 2005-2007 is to maintain its own identity through its numerical growth and by tracing the respective family histories. Constitutional and legislative guarantees are provided for the Anglo-Indians to maintain their schools and retain English as the medium of language. There is nevertheless significant, societal pressure on the Anglo-Indians to assimilate within mainstream Indian society: members of the community view their choices as being limited to assimilation or return to countries of their ancestors.
Minorities Resources Minority based and advocacy organisations
Indian Confederation of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples
Email:[email protected]

Naga Peoples' Movement for Human Rights (NPMHR)
Tel: +91 370 222 9356, 222 9357
Email:[email protected]
Jews of India
People's Union for Democratic Rights
Email:[email protected]
Andaman Islanders Sources and further reading
M. Chadda, Minority Rights and Conflict Prevention: Case Study of Conflicts in Indian Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Nagaland (London, MRG) 2006.

A.A Engineer, (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in South Asia, Delhi, Ajanta Publications, 1987.

Forests and Indigenous Peoples of Asia, MRG Report, 1999.

J. Kananaikil, (ed.), Scheduled Castes and the Struggle against Inequality: Strategies to Empower the Marginalized, (New Delhi, Indian Social Institute, 1983)

R. Manchanda, (ed.), The No-Nonsense Guide to Minority Rights in South Asia (New Delhi, South Asia Forum for Human Rights) 2006, 38-52.

N. Mishra, Schedule Caste Education: Issues and Aspect (New Delhi, Kalpaz Publications, 2001).

B. Joshi (ed.), Untouchable! Voices of the Dalit Liberation Movement, London, MRG report, 1986.

E. Zelliot, From Untouchable to Dalit: Essays on Ambedkar Movement, (New Dehli, Manohar) 1992.

S. Kazi, Muslim Women in India (London, MRG) 1999.

C. Lehari, Socio-demographic Profile of Muslims (Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 1997)

H. Mushirul, Legacy of a Divided Nation: India's Muslims Since Independence (London: 1997)

B. Sumantra, The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self Determination and a Just Peace (New Delhi, Sage Publications, 1997)

C. Bates, 'Lost innocents and the loss of innocence': Interpreting Adivasi movements in South Asia', in R. Barnes, A. Gray and B. Kingsbury (eds.), Indigenous Peoples of Asia, Ann Arbor, MI, Association for Asian Studies, 1993, pp. 103-119.

R. Bhengra, C.R. Bijoy and S. Luithui, The Adivasis of India (MRG International Report, 1998).

S. Corbridge, 'Competing Inequalities: The Scheduled Tribes and The Reservation Systems in India's Jharkhand' (2000) 59 The Journal of Asian Studies 1.

N. Mishra, Schedule Caste Education: Issues and Aspect (New Delhi, Kalpaz Publications, 2001).

T. Weisskopf, Affirmative Action in the United States and India: A Comparative Perspective (London, Routledge, 2004).

A. Aditya, The Land of Nagas, (Ahmedabad, Mapin Pub) 2004.

C. Shackle, The Sikhs, (London, Minority Group) 1986.

K Singh, A History of the Sikhs (Delhi; Oxford: Oxford University Press) 2005

J. Singh, Sikh Religion and Human Civilization (Patiala, Publication Bureau, Punjabi) 1999.

Raj P. Singh, The Sikhs: Their Journey of Five Hundred Years/by Raj Pal Singh (New Delhi: Bhavana Books & Prints) 2003.

Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front, retrieved 11 March 2007, http://www.satp.org/satp orgtp/countries/india/states/jandk/terrorist_outfits/jammu_&_kashmir_liberation_front.htm

A. Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy 1846-1990 (Hertfordshire, Roxford Books, 1991)

B. Sumantra, The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self Determination and a Just Peace (New Delhi, Sage Publications, 1997)
Jews of India
B.J. Israel, The Jews of India (New Dehli, Jewish Welfare Association, Mosaic Books) 1998.

O. Slapak, The Jews of India: A Story of three Communities (Jerusalem, Israel Museum) 1995.
Andaman Islanders
D. Tayler Cox and L. Cole (eds.), The Andaman Islanders (London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson) 1966.

Copyright notice: © Minority Rights Group International. All rights reserved.

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United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

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Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - India

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In October 2015, MRG revised its World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples . For the most part, overview texts were not themselves updated, but the previous 'Current state of minorities and indigenous peoples' rubric was replaced throughout with links to the relevant minority-specific reports, and a 'Resources' section was added.

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Simple past
This tense is used for a past habit or action that ha already been completed, for example:
I ate chocolate.
To know more examples about this tense there’s this image

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Migration and population diversity:
-Migration is the movement of people form one place to another, it might be temporary of permanently. Population diversity is the diversity of individuals in a specific space of land.
Here’s an interesting article to learn more about migration:

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Abstract

Migration represents one of the basic components of an integrated, globalized world. It supports the global economic system by providing a flexible, mobile labor force and transfer of income through remittances. Migration supports and sustains family and cultural associations between nations and continents and increasingly provides important demographic support to aging populations in areas of low birth rates. In addition to these positive attributes, global migration provides a window onto global disparities and inequity. Refugees and displaced populations reflect the scope and consequences of conflict, violence, disasters, and emergencies.

All of those activities and processes are influenced and subject to the determinants of health in the migrant population themselves. Historically, the health status and outcomes of migrant and mobile populations had been a long-standing area of interest, investigation, and monitoring for relatively few nations. During the past half century, however, the topic has assumed wide international importance. This chapter describes those changes in the context of global population health.

Keywords

Migration Migrant workers Refugees Health disparities Global health determinants

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References

1. IOM, WHO (1990) "Migration medicine" IOM/WHO conference report. Geneva, February 3-6

2. Kupiszewska D, Kupiszewski M, Martí M, Ródenas C (2010) Possibilities and limitations of comparative quantitative research on international migration flows. European Commission, Brussels

3. McKay L, Macintyre S, Ellaway A (2003) Migration and health: a review of the international literature. Medical Research Council Social and Public Health Sciences Unit. Occasional paper # 12, University of Glasgow, Glasgow

4. Stauffer WM, Alpern JD, Walker PF (2020) COVID-19 and dexamethasone: a potential strategy to avoid steroid-related strongyloides hyperinfection. JAMA. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.13170

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Migration represents one of the basic components of an integrated, globalized world. It supports the global economic system by providing a flexible, mobile labor force and transfer of income through remittances. Migration supports and sustains family and cultural associations between nations and continents and increasingly provides important demographic support to aging populations in areas of low birth rates.

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Past perfect
We use this tense with the past tense to indicate a sequence of events, for example
He had finished the test when the bell rang.
For any doubts use this link that might help

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Past continuous
Commonly used with the simple past, however, this tense refers to very specific time or events happening at parallel times/interrupted actions, for example
I was eating dinner when he called me.
To get a deeper explanation about the topic visit the video at top

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Language diversity:
-Language diversity refers to the different variants that exist about the same language, situation caused by the localization in which they are.
Here’s an informative video about the variants that might be the most common:

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Past perfect continuous
This tense shows that an action that started in the past continued up until another time in the past, for example
Sara had been working here for two weeks when she had an accident.
To take some notes, in this link is a really good explanation

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Past Perfect Continuous Tense - English grammar tutorial video lesson