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Pedogenesis Facts for Kids | KidzSearch.com

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The organisms living in and on the soil form distinct soil types. Coniferous forests have acidic leaf litter and form what are known as inceptisols. Mixed or deciduous forests leave a larger layer of humus, changing the elements leached and accumulated in the soil, forming alfisols.

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Exploring the latest in scientific discoveries from prehistoric life to missions to Mars.

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Land Degradation: An overview | NRCS Soils

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It is in the context of these global economic and environmental impacts of land degradation, and numerous functions of value to humans, that land degradation, desertification, and resilience concepts are relevant (Eswaran, 1993). They are also important in developing technologies for reversing land degradation trends and mitigating the greenhouse effect through land and ecosystem restoration.

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Louisiana Coastal Wetlands and Erosion Risks

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Louisiana Coastal Wetlands and Erosion Risks

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Louisiana Coastal Wetlands: A Resource At Risk - USGS Fact Sheet

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The swamps and marshes of coastal Louisiana are among the Nation's most fragile and valuable wetlands, vital not only to recreational and agricultural interests but also the State's more than $1 billion per year seafood industry. The staggering annual losses of wetlands in Louisiana are caused by human activity as well as natural processes.

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Erosion and surface drainage after forest fires
What types of forest fires are there? What effect do fires have on the forest soil? Can fire areas be stabilized within a reasonable time to avoid erosion?
The fire regime

Fig. 1 Typical erosion caused by rain drops after a forest fire. Photo: Peter Marxer (WSL Bellinzona)

Fire is an irregular and heterogeneous phenomenon. Forest fires can be classed according to their typology.

Ground fires (smouldering fire, which slowly burns underground material).

Running fires (quick advancing surface fires, which only burn material on the surface).

Crown fires (fierce flames, which extend up to the tree crowns).

A combination of these types.

Depending on prevailing weather conditions and the fuel characteristics forest fires can vary in intensity, seasonality and frequency. The combination of these elements is called the "fire regime".

In cases of high fire disturbance (frequent and intensive fires) only fire adapted plant species usually survive. Species which recover and regenerate slowly and with difficulty after a fire are in danger of being wiped out by frequent occurrences. In evaluating post-fire effects it is therefore important to consider not only the last event, but the whole former fire history, that is to say, the fire regime of the area. This is also true for the post-fire erosion and run off.

Consequences of a forest fire on the soil

The fire burns the litter layer and part of the humus layer. Therefore stones on the surface become destabilized. In mountain areas it is often the case that a stone starts rolling during a fire. The worst consequences of a fire however occur after the fire: the lack of cover from ground and tree vegetation allows rain drops to hit the soil directly. Due to this soil structures are destroyed and erosion and washing out take place (Fig. 1). The bare soil dries out quicker and its surface becomes impermeable. The rain tends to flow off the surface eroding rills and gullies into the soil. (Marxer 2003).

On what do erosion and run-off depend?

F ig. 2 Build up of ash after a fire. A rule of thumb says: the whiter the ash after a forest fire, the more intense the flame front.
Photo: WSL Bellinzona

Fig. 3. In repeated burn area, the bracken grows thick and lush.
Photo: Peter Marxer (WSL Bellinzona)

The impermiability of the soil depends on the temperature of the fire (higher temperatures mean greater destruction of the soil structure) and from the production of ash (greater quantities of fire material and more intensive fire produce more ash (Fig. 2)), which then physically blocks the soil pores (Letey 2001). These negative effects mainly happen in the first months after the fire. In areas which have not been recently affected by forest fires or other disturbances, or which have a lack of light-demanding and quick reacting plant species adapted to disturbances, there is a longer period of danger from erosion (Fig 3).

The occurrence of all these negative factors simultaneously can lead to catastrophic consequences. This was the case in the spring of 1997 when a long dry period and strong Föhn winds led to widespread and devastating forest fires in Tessin and in Misox. Precipitation following the fire led to larger and smaller mudslides at the following places:

Mezzovico (as a result of the forest fire of 4th April 1997)

Rosone (Valcolla, as a result of the forest fire of 3rd April 1997)

Grono (as a result of the forest fire of 16th April 1997)

Roncos (Ascona 4000m³ mud slide as a result of the forest fire of 15th March 1997)

Magadino (as a result of the forest fire in the Valley del Trodo on 20th April 1997)

How can erosion be reduced?

Unfortunately there are no technical or silvicultural measures known which could be put into place to make a forest fire area safe from erosion in an acceptable time and with a reasonable amount of effort. It is however possible to calculate the intensity of rain which could lead to damage in a given forest fire area. Thus when large amounts of rainfall are predicted necessary alarm and safety precautions could be taken (e.g. the closing of endangered roads).

References

Marxer, P., 2003. Oberflächenabfluss und Bodenerosion auf Brandflächen des Kastanienwaldgürtels der Südschweiz mit einer Anleitung zur Bewertung der post-fire Erosionsanfälligkeit (BA EroKaBr). Physiogeographica 33: 217 S.

Letey, J., 2001. Causes and consequences of fire-induced soil water repellency. Hydrol. Process., 15, 2867-2875.

Translation: Dawn Meister, Stallikon

More on waldwissen.net

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Editorial office forestknowledge.net - WSL

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Erosion and surface drainage after forest fires

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What types of forest fires are there? What effect do fires have on the forest soil? Can fire areas be stabilized within a reasonable time to avoid erosion? The fire regime Fig. 1 Typical erosion caused by rain drops after a forest fire. Photo: Peter Marxer (WSL Bellinzona) Fire is an irregular and heterogeneous phenomenon.

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Sometimes soil erosion is caused by wind.This happens when the wind carries the lighter particles away.The wind will also eventually get the heavier particles and as the travel along the surface of the ground they will break into smaller particles with fewer nutrients.

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Some of the most notorious famines of the 20th century were caused by overtly political actions. According to Slate, the Great Chinese Famine of 1958 to 1961 was a direct result of leader Mao Zedong's disastrous "Great Leap Forward" campaign, an attempt to rapidly transition the country from an agrarian to industrial society. Similarly, the Ukrainian "Holodomor" of 1932 to 1933, which killed between 2.4 and 7.5 million Ukrainians, is widely perceived as a deliberate genocide attempt by Joseph Stalin. Even the Irish Potato Famine of 1845 to 1852, ostensibly caused by the crop disease potato blight, was greatly aggravated by the governmental policies of the British, Ireland's colonial rulers. Recent famines in many African countries are also examples of a confluence of political and environmental factors whereby droughts were often exacerbated by political discord and poor government policy.

Political factors aside, many famines have been caused mainly by environmental factors. From droughts to overly long rainy seasons and plant diseases, most historical famines were caused by factors that were difficult, if not impossible, to prevent.
Learn more about Social Sciences

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Some of the most notorious famines of the 20th century were caused by overtly political actions. According to Slate, the Great Chinese Famine of 1958 to 1961 was a direct result of leader Mao Zedong's disastrous "Great Leap Forward" campaign, an attempt to rapidly transition the country from an agrarian to industrial society.

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Millions of people are facing starvation across East Africa, Yemen and north-east Nigeria. Oxfam is on the ground providing food, clean water and sanitation. Make a donation now and help us respond to those in desperate need in one or more of these regions.

Millions on the brink of starvation

East Africa, Yemen and north-east Nigeria are in the grip of an unprecedent and devastating food crisis. Famine is already likely happening in parts of northern Nigeria, while Yemen and Somalia are on the brink. Thanks to aid efforts, it has been pushed back in South Sudan but the food crisis continues to spread across the country.

Across these regions, about 30 million people are experiencing alarming hunger, surviving only on what they can find to eat. According to UNICEF, 27 million people lack safe water, increasing the threat of cholera and spreading other water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea. Malnutrition is having a disastrous impact and as ever, children are among the worst affected.

Persistent drought has caused crops to fail and cattle to die in parts of Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya - causing severe food and water shortages. Brutal conflicts in South Sudan, Yemen and Nigeria have driven millions of people from their homes and left millions more in need of emergency food.

This is the largest hunger emergency in the world. If these crises are left unresolved, malnutrition and deaths will increase exponentially in a catastrophic deterioration. United Nations warned as many as 1.4 million children could die of starvation in the coming months.

Oxfam's humanitarian response

Oxfam is on the ground in all areas, reaching the most affected with the emergency help they need to survive. We are:

Working with local partner organizations who provide emergency food distributions and work with vulnerable people to produce their own food and other income.

Providing emergency water and sanitation, to stop the spread of diseases like cholera and diarrhea

Providing cash and vouchers so people can purchase the food they need to survive

Trucking in urgently needed water to the worst drought affected areas

Constructing showers and toilets for those who have been forced to flee their homes

This is a crisis we cannot ignore. Worsening hunger and the spread of famine are imminent, but not yet inevitable.
We can stop the worst from happening and prevent a catastrophic loss of life if we act now.

Help save lives by supporting Oxfam's work and providing emergency aid to those who need it most.

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Millions of people are facing starvation across East Africa, Yemen and north-east Nigeria. Oxfam is on the ground providing food, clean water and sanitation. Make a donation now and help us respond to those in desperate need in one or more of these regions.

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OPINION: Any parent will tell you - you can pick out your child crying immediately. I know my daughter's cry very well, and it provokes that instant reaction - 'what can I do?'

Usually, a cuddle, or a calming word, or if all else fails, the promise of an ice cream will calm her. Sometimes though, if she's sick, she keeps crying. Being unable to stop that crying - that pain - is heart-wrenching.

But I've never had to listen to her crying because she's starving. And I can barely imagine how difficult it must be as a parent to hear your child crying out for food, and knowing you have nothing - nothing - to give them.

This week, the world's first famine for six years was officially announced. South Sudan. The world's newest country, with a population of 13 million people. And a country so poor it couldn't afford to celebrate its independence day.
READ MORE:
* Survival in South Sudan
* South Sudan in famine
Right now, millions of South Sudanese don't have enough to eat. Right now, more than million children are at immediate risk of starvation - the population of the South Island.

Lots of those kids, are set to die.

But unlike so many disasters, where the event is unforseeable, these deaths are entirely preventable. We know can stop people dying tomorrow. And we also know how terrible and devastating it can be if we don't act quickly.

Since 2000, the world has experienced just one famine - Somalia in 2010. More than a quarter of a million people died. Half of them were children under five.

The famine that hit Ethiopia in the mid-80s led to the deaths of somewhere between 400,000 people and a million people, depending on who you ask.

Now, conditions across a huge swathe of Central Africa and the Middle East, mean millions more are at risk. South Sudan is just the first to be officially in famine. It's almost certain other regions will soon follow.

Across South Sudan, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Yemen, and Somalia, more than 20m people face the slow death of starvation. A combination of conflict, drought, and poor harvests has left populations poorly-resourced, under-nourished, and unable to cope.

Children in South Sudan are already reduced to eating wild food - grass, water lilies, insects. Those foods are running out, and there's not enough - 1.1m children in South Sudan are already severely malnourished.

By the middle of the year, it's estimated more than half the country's population - 5.5m people, won't know where their next meal is coming from. If it's not lack of food that kills them, it's lack of clean water.

Diseases like cholera are common, and malnourished children are nine times more likely to die from disease than a child who's not malnourished.

Imagine knowing that your child was being reduced to eating grass to try and survive? Imagine how helpless it would make you feel. Imagine the pain of listening to them die.

Every time I try, every time I imagine it's my little daughter in that situation, I feel the awful stab of emotion.

What can we do, from our tiny collection of islands at the bottom of the world? Simple. You can donate.

New Zealand agencies, including UNICEF, already have teams on the ground, working alongside governments and officials, trying to do what they can to help.

We know only too well that that the humanitarian crisis we're attempting to tackle is enormous.

Make no mistake, this is a global emergency, and we do need help. The numbers are enormous, but that simply gives an indication of just how monumental the problem is. There is no such thing as a small donation.

Every dollar donated can buy three sachets of therapeutic food - a peanut-based formula packed with enough nutrients to keep a child alive in such an emergency. Every donation means we can provide more safe water, sanitation, medical attention and vital vaccinations.

We can save these children.

I know there are people who say we should focus on our own backyard first, that there are kiwi kids doing it tough who need attention too.

Yes, we should look at our issues, and we must help New Zealand kids, but they're not mutually exclusive. We can do both.

I was only a young boy in the mid-80s, but I remember the Ethiopian famine. I can still recall Live Aid, 'We Are The World', those terrible, haunting images.

We can't sit here and do nothing, ignoring desperate people once more. As a nation, as New Zealanders, that's not who we are. We stand up, and we help.

And tonight, I'll hug my daughter extra tight, and hope that in 30 years time, she doesn't remember a time when millions starved, as the world watched.
This article was supplied as part of Stuff's partnership with Unicef NZ. UNICEF stands up for every child so they can have a childhood. Find out more at unicef.org.nz
UNICEF is assisting children and families affected by the conflict across South Sudan by providing food, shelter, medical assistance and education. To donate, and help the children, visit: https://www.unicef.org.nz/famine.
* Comments have now closed.
- Stuff Nation

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Famine in Africa: The looming disaster we can't let happen again

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OPINION: Any parent will tell you - you can pick out your child crying immediately. I know my daughter's cry very well, and it provokes that instant reaction - 'what can I do?' Usually, a cuddle, or a calming word, or if all else fails, the promise of an ice cream will calm her.

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The United Nations says the world is facing its biggest humanitarian crisis since the end of World War Two. A famine has already been declared in parts of South Sudan. There have also been warnings of possible famine in north-east Nigeria, Somalia and Yemen. The UN says in all nearly 20 million people are at risk of starvation. Why are there still famines and what can be done about it?

What is happening in South Sudan?

UN agencies say 100,000 people are facing starvation in South Sudan and a further 1 million there are classified as being on the brink of famine. This is the most acute of the present food emergencies. It is also the most widespread nationally. Overall, says the UN, 4.9 million people - or 40% of South Sudan's population - are "in need of urgent food, agriculture and nutrition assistance".

"Many families have exhausted every means they have to survive," says the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization representative in South Sudan, Serge Tissot.

The main cause of the famine is conflict. The country has now been at war since 2013 and more than 3 million people have been forced to flee their homes.

As World Food Programme country director Joyce Luma says: "This famine is man-made."

"The people are predominantly farmers and war has disrupted agriculture. They've lost their livestock, even their farming tools. For months there has been a total reliance on whatever plants they can find and fish they can catch," says Mr Tissot.

Crop production has been severely curtailed by the conflict, even in previously stable and fertile areas, as a long-running dispute among political leaders has escalated into a violent competition for power and resources among different ethnic groups.

As crop production has fallen and livestock have died, so inflation has soared (by up to 800% year-on-year, says the UN) causing massive price rises for basic foodstuffs.

This economic collapse would not have happened without war.
Emerging from the swamp in South Sudan The wooden bridge between death and safety More about South Sudan
What does the declaration of famine mean?

The UN considers famine a technical term, to be used sparingly. The formal famine declaration in South Sudan means people there have already started dying of hunger.

More specifically, famine can be declared only when certain measures of mortality, malnutrition and hunger are met. These are:

at least 20% of households in an area face extreme food shortages with a limited ability to cope;

acute malnutrition rates exceed 30%;

and the death rate exceeds two persons per day per 10,000 persons.

Other factors that may be considered include large-scale displacement, widespread destitution, disease outbreaks and social collapse.

Read more: What is a famine?

The declaration of a famine carries no binding obligations on the UN or anyone else, but does bring global attention to the problem.

Previous famines include southern Somalia in 2011, southern Sudan in 2008, Gode in the Somali region of Ethiopia in 2000, North Korea (1996), Somalia (1991-1992) and Ethiopia (1984-1985).

The possibility of three further famine declarations in Nigeria, Somali and Yemen would be an unprecedented situation in modern times.

"We have never seen that before, and with all of these crises they are protracted situations and they require significant financing," World Food Programme director of emergencies Denise Brown told the Guardian. "The international community has got to find a way of stepping up to manage this situation until political solutions are found."

How much aid is needed?

UN humanitarian chief Stephen O'Brien said that more than 20 million people faced the threat of starvation and famine in north-east Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan and Yemen.

Unicef has already warned 1.4 million children could starve to death this year.

Mr O'Brien said $4.4bn (£3.6bn) was needed by July to avert disaster.

"We stand at a critical point in history," Mr O'Brien told the Security Council last week. "Already at the beginning of the year we are facing the largest humanitarian crisis since the creation of the United Nations."

What can be done in South Sudan?

In the immediate term, two things would be necessary to halt and reverse the famine: More humanitarian assistance and unimpeded access for humanitarian agencies to those worst affected.

UN agencies speak of handing out millions of emergency livelihood kits, intended to help people fish or grow vegetables. There has also been a programme to vaccinate sheep and goats in an attempt to stem further livestock losses.

But, says Ms Luma, "we have also warned that there is only so much that humanitarian assistance can achieve in the absence of meaningful peace and security".

The areas where a famine has been declared are in parts of Unity State seen as sympathetic to the rebels.

Some UN officials have suggested President Salva Kiir's government has been blocking food aid to certain areas. There have also been reports of humanitarian convoys and warehouses coming under attack or being looted, either by government or rebel forces.

Although it denies the charges, President Kiir has promised "that all humanitarian and development organisations have unimpeded access to needy populations across the country".

But apart from that, there has been no indication that the huge suffering of civilians will prompt South Sudan's warring parties to stop fighting.

Why are there food crises elsewhere?

The common theme is conflict.

Like South Sudan, Somalia and Yemen are all fairly poor countries where fighting has severely disrupted stability and normal life, pushing people over the edge. The same is true for north-east Nigeria.

People are so busy trying to survive that they are unable to earn a living by going to work, farming or looking after their animals.

In Somalia, a drought has killed many animals which are the main source of income for millions of nomads.

What is happening in Nigeria?

The north-east of the country has been badly hit by an eight-year insurgency by Islamist militant group Boko Haram.

Although the army has now pushed it out of most of the areas it had seized, some 2.4 million people have fled their homes and are unable to farm their land.

Although Nigeria is a major oil exporter, many people live in poverty at the best of times, especially in the arid north.
'We survived Boko Haram but face starvation' Who are Boko Haram?
What about Somalia?

Somalia was the last country to experience a famine, in 2011.

It has been without a functioning national government for more than 25 years and has been wracked by constant conflict during that time.

Islamist militant group al-Shabab still controls many rural parts of the country.

While al-Shabab does allow normal economic life such as farming and livestock herding to carry on, Western aid agencies are not able to operate in these areas.

The conflict between the African Union-backed government in Mogadishu and al-Shabab has exacerbated the situation.

A severe drought has affected the entire Horn of Africa.

Ethiopia and Kenya have also been badly hit by the lack of security and the inability of aid workers to reach many parts of the country mean Somalia has been feeling it worst.
Who are al-Shabab?
What is happening in Yemen?

In Yemen, a multi-party civil conflict has drawn in regional powers, causing widespread destruction, economic damage and loss of life.

Yemen has long-standing water shortages and successive governments have been criticised for not doing more to conserve resources and improve the country's ability to feed itself.

Even before the conflict started, nearly 90% of Yemen's food had to be imported, Oxfam says.

It is estimated that 18.8 million people, or 69% of Yemen's population, need of some form of humanitarian assistance. That includes 10.3 million in acute need, who urgently require immediate, life-saving assistance in at least one sector.

Yemen usually imports more than 90% of staple food. But a naval embargo imposed by the Saudi-led coalition, fighting around the government-controlled port of Aden and air strikes on the rebel-held port of Hudaydah, have severely reduced imports since 2015.

A lack of fuel, coupled with insecurity and damage to markets and roads, have also prevented supplies from being distributed.

How is it different for more stable countries?

In Kenya, the government has declared a national disaster because of the drought in parts of the country and announced a compensation scheme for those who have lost livestock.

The Kenya Red Cross has been making cash payments, distributing food vouchers and aid and helping livestock owners sell off weakening animals before they die.
In pictures: Kenyans share their dinner to save livestock
This kind of ameliorative action is much less possible or likely in countries affected by war.

UN assistant secretary general Justin Forsyth told the BBC: "Nobody should be dying of starvation in 2017. There is enough food in the world, we have enough capability in terms of the humanitarian community.

"In South Sudan, Unicef has 620 feeding centres for severely malnourished children, so the places where children are dying are places we can't get to, or get to only occasionally. If there was access, we could save all of these children's lives."

The US-based Africa Center for Strategic Studies says 19 African countries are facing crisis, emergency, or catastrophic levels of food insecurity.

Of these, 10 are experiencing civil conflict. Eight of these are autocracies and the source of 82% of the 18.5 million Africans who are internally displaced or refugees, the ACSS says.

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The United Nations says the world is facing its biggest humanitarian crisis since the end of World War Two. A famine has already been declared in parts of South Sudan. There have also been warnings of possible famine in north-east Nigeria, Somalia and Yemen.

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Water Quality Visual Inspection Fact Sheet

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Water Quality Visual Inspection Fact Sheet

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Water Quality Visual Inspection Fact Sheet

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Weathering and Erosion Project Grading Rubric

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Compare the pH for common household items and graph your results

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Make a comic with fully posable characters | Pixton #storyboard

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The world's most popular and easy to use comic and storyboard creator.

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Glaciers - before we get into it, let's get a little definition of the thing. According to all those geology folks, they are essentially slow moving rivers of ice, formed at high altitude where the temperature is cold enough for the water to freeze.

To us, they are an incredible phenomenon to behold. Especially when carving, as great chunks of ice topple from the ice shelves and crash into the water below. The spectacle of the cycle of nature in action.

But it's not all fun and games, not now the cycle looks to have been sped up to unsustainable levels by global warming. While they might be simply awesome sights to us, they mean so much more to the communities that live beneath them. Not to mention the plants, animals and other wildlife that depend on their existence. Their destruction means a lot more than a few less opportunities for holiday snaps.

It's scary to see how little of these amazing natural sights are left since they started being recorded as little as a century ago. With that said, here are 14 of the world's most incredible glaciers that, if they continue at the rate they are going, won't be around for too much longer.

1. The Antarctic

Along with Greenland, the Antarctic contains 99% of all the world's glacial ice. So there's no doubt that it's here you'll witness some of the most incredible ice formations that you're ever likely to see. Sadly, it's shedding around 160 billion tonnes of ice a year - an amount that is impossible to replace.

This region is now becoming a popular tourist destination, but rather than adding to the problem, the area is promoting 'responsible tourism'.

Operators look to minimalise the impact on the environment while educating people on not just the problems the region faces, but the natural beauty exclusive to the area too. If you decide to go, make sure you try the kayaking expedition to the towering ice shelves and visit the Emperor Penguins, which only make their home in the Antarctic.

2. Eqi Glacier, Greenland

The other heavy hitter in the glacial world. Greenland's popularity as a tourist destination has grown incredibly over the last few years, precisely for of the incredible ice sheets that cover it.

A favourite is the Eqi glacier. One of the most active glaciers in Greenland, it's a rarity as it's still advancing rather than receding. As a result, it's constantly carving, dropping huge blocks of ice into the fjord water below. The splashes are so impressive they will leave you feeling infinitesimally small.

Still, if you fancy yourself a bit of a daredevil you can get up close and personal. Just remember that hiking to the ice cap will take around a day from the popular tourist town, Ilulissat, so you'll need to book into one of the fjord-side lodges before you go.

3. Glacier National Park, Montana, USA

Back in 1850, the area that now makes up Glacier National Park had 150 active glaciers. By its latest count it has only 35 named glaciers remaining, 25 of which are considered active.

It's worth checking those that remain while you still can. You should maybe hurry though. The Sperry glacier has receded from covering an area as big as 800 acres in 1901 to less than 250 acres today. Still, it's beautiful and the park offers some spectacular hiking routes. It's also an area where you can see some truly unique and incredible wildlife, including mountain goats and even grizzly bears.

Book a stay at Glacier National Park

4. Quelccaya Ice Cap, Peru

Quelccaya is the largest ice cap in the tropics. It's also contracting by more than 600 ft a year and experts estimate that it will be gone by 2100. With it shrinking at that rate, it's worth jumping in there sooner rather than later.

Ayni-Peru, famous for their Inca Trail treks, now offer guide led expeditions to the glacier from Cusco. It's only a short three day expedition, but it is fairly challenging thanks to the terrain you'll be covering and the altitude.

It is worth it though. The views of the surrounding mountains and glaciers are beautiful, you can get a good look at the ice shelves and will pass grazing llamas, alpacas and other wonderful Peruvian mountain wildlife that are all fed from the fruits of the Quelccya ice cap.

Book your stay in Cusco

5. Fox and Franz Josef, New Zealand

This pair of glaciers is unique owing to its low altitude. It sits less than 300 meters above sea level amongst all the lush greenery of a temperate rainforest, rather than on the high rocks of a mountain peak, feeding the Waiho River. It's also part of the Te Wahipounamu World Heritage Site Park, which is home to a whole host of unique wildlife.

Since it's so low, it's probably one of the easiest glaciers to hike. Still, if you'd rather not walk you can do the trip by helicopter and check out this incredible sight from the air.

Although the glaciers aren't shrinking at the rate of some of the others on this list, it's expected to lose 38% of its mass by 2100.

6. Pasterze, Austria

The biggest of Austria's glaciers, it sits at the foot of the towering Glossglockner, the country's largest mountain. It's a popular destination for tourists due to it being close to popular lakeside resort, Zell am See. With its busy visitor's centre on the Grossglocknerstrasse mountain road, it's one of the easier ones to trek. Still, glacier is currently receding by a ridiculous 33 ft per year, so if you want to see it in all its magnificent glory, you better get down there soon.

Book your stay at Zell am See.

7. Perito Moreno, Argentina

One of the most important sights in Argentine Patagonia, Perito Moreno is fed by the South Patagonian ice field in the Andes. Unlike most, this glacier is actually advancing, rather than shrinking. It's also one of the most accessible in Patagonia - there are three viewing areas allowing travellers some stunning close-ups.

8. Hubbard, Alaska, USA

The longest tidewater glacier in Alaska, it extends for a massive 76 miles from its source on Mt. Logan. As it's also advancing, it's another one that's actively 'calving'. Like the Eqi in Greenland, its ice shelves can be reached by boat or on foot and the explosions from the water as the ice blocks fall make for an exciting spectacle - not to forget the unnerving creaking noise which the indigenous Tlingit people have called 'white thunder.'

9. Athabasca, Canada

Straddling the continental divide, this glacier is part of the Rocky Mountains' Columbia Icefield. As mighty as it is, it's already receded to under half its original size and continues to recede now. It's also been reported as one of the most dangerous glaciers to explore. People have died by falling into deep crevasses hidden in the glacier, which is why areas are blocked off with barriers. Now with that doom and gloom out of the way, the glacier and the valley it's cut into the mountain are still a mammoth sight to behold and well worth the trip.

10. Vatnajokull, Iceland

By way of ratio this glacier is humungous. Covering 8% of the country, it is one of the largest in Europe. It also lies in a wild wonderland of a landscape, surrounded by active volcanoes, ice cave and hot springs.

The glacier itself can be hiked via the national park of the same name. Guided tours are available daily, from the short family-friendly treks to the slightly more intense (though wholly manageable) half day tours.

According to the Guinness Book of Records, it's also the 'object of the world's longest sight line'. Unfortunately it's receding like far too many glaciers, so who knows how long it'll hold that record for.

11. Yulong, China

Unlike the Fox and Franz Josef glaciers, this glacier sits up high. Real high. So high that the climb to the final observation deck often requires the use of oxygen, making it pretty much inaccessible to all but the most experienced climbers.

Still, it might not be there for too long. Situated in the Yunnan Province of China, it too is receding at an alarming rate. And its disappearance won't just effect the view. It's a major source of water for the region and any significant increase in meltwater could cause the flood-prone Yulong River to burst its banks.

12. Biafo, Pakistan

This remote glacier in the Karakoram Mountain Range is just about accessible via a lengthy hike along the edge of Snow Lake. It sure isn't the easiest trek, providing several days of very strenuous boulder hopping. But if you can make it, it's a truly unforgettable journey offering incredible views throughout. You can also see evidence of wildlife throughout the trek, such as brown bears, snow leopards and ibexes.

13.Drang-Drung, Himalayas, India

Probably the second largest of the Himalayan glaciers, after the Siachen, this is probably one of the easiest to get to. You can reach it by car from the popular city of Srinagar, or even directly from Srinagar airport and it's a beautiful sight to behold.

But its beauty belies the delicate part it plays in the local river system. Being that it feeds the Doda River, its increased recession could one day lead to the river running dry completely, resulting in drought in the region. This gives us the all too brutal reality of how glacial melt can affect local communities.

14.Furtwangler, Mt. Kilimanjaro

And finally, one of the most iconic glaciers in the world, the Furtwangler. The snows of Kilimanjaro were made famous years ago by Hemmingway, but here, too, the ice is receding rapidly. In fact it's been reported that between 1912 and 2000, 82% of the ice disappeared. It's expected that by 2020, all the glaciers on top of the mountain will be gone.

Importance of Glaciers

The glacial ice across the world combined makes up the largest reservoir of freshwater on the planet. So much so that if it were all to melt tomorrow, the water levels would rise by a whopping 70 meters. It's not hard to work out the effects such a rise in sea levels would have on the world.

But it's not just on a global scale. Glaciers in more temperate climates start to melt and produce streams during the warmer months, before regenerating during the cold weather season and starting the process over. There are communities across the globe that rely on local glaciers' meltwater - such as in Peru - for clean drinking water, crop irrigation and power. If these were to disappear, it would cause major problems.

On top of that, there are the dangers of floods. The rate of the glacial melt continues to increase, there will be bigger risk of glacial lakes overflowing and the rivers they feed bursting their banks. This leads to the kinds of catastrophic natural disasters like we've seen in India and elsewhere.

It's important that while visiting these incredible natural sites, they don't just become another Instagram. As responsible travellers, we should think about their protection and preservation too.
Want to get a proper look at these glaciers while you still can? Plan you visit and book your accommodation with HostelBookers now.
Have you witnessed any of these glaciers or know of any other amazing ice sheets around the world? Tell us about them in the comments...
Related posts:
Thanks to Kimberly Vardeman, Liam Quinn, Kristine Riskær, Lee Coursey, joka2000, Jordi Brió, blmiers2, Robert Raines, peanutian, Etienne, daveonhols, Black Zero, Poonam Agarwal and Mouser Williams for the most excellent image. Please note all were under Creative Commons Licence at time of publishing.

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14 Awesome Glaciers You Must See Before They're Gone - hostelbookers

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Glaciers are some of the most awe-inspiring natural wonders you can find on this planet, but their existence, like that of so many things today, is under threat. With so many of these magnificent natural ice structures shrinking so quickly, it's best you go see them quickly.

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Approximate worldwide area covered by glaciers

New Guinea

3 square kilometers (1.16 square miles )

Africa

6 square kilometers (2.23 square miles )

New Zealand

1,600 square kilometers (617 square miles)

Scandinavia

2,940 square kilometers (1,135 square miles)

Central Europe

3,785 square kilometers (1,416 square miles)

South America

25,500 square kilometers (9,846 square miles)

Northern Asia

59,600 square kilometers (23,012 square miles)

Antarctica (not including the main ice sheets)

77,000 square kilometers (29,730 square miles)

Central Asia

114,800 square kilometers (44,325 square miles)

North America

124,000 square kilometers (47,877 square miles)

Arctic Islands (not including the Greenland Ice Sheet)

275,500 square kilometers (106,371 square miles)

These measurements were compiled by the World Glacier Monitoring Service, and published in the 2008 publication, Global Glacier Changes: facts and figures.

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Approximate worldwide area covered by glaciers New Guinea 3 square kilometers (1.16 square miles ) Africa 6 square kilometers (2.23 square miles ) New Zealand 1,600 square kilometers (617 square miles) Scandinavia 2,940 square kilometers (1,135 square miles) Central Europe 3,785 square kilometers (1,416 square miles) South America 25,500 square

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Glaciers begin to form when snow remains in the same area year-round, where enough snow accumulates to transform into ice. Each year, new layers of snow bury and compress the previous layers. This compression forces the snow to re-crystallize, forming grains similar in size and shape to grains of sugar. Gradually the grains grow larger and the air pockets between the grains get smaller, causing the snow to slowly compact and increase in density. After about a year, the snow turns into firn -an intermediate state between snow and glacier ice. At this point, it is about two-thirds as dense as water. Over time, larger ice crystals become so compressed that any air pockets between them are very tiny. In very old glacier ice, crystals can reach several inches in length. For most glaciers, this process takes more than a hundred years.

Last updated: 16 March 2020

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Glaciers begin to form when snow remains in the same area year-round, where enough snow accumulates to transform into ice. Each year, new layers of snow bury and compress the previous layers. This compression forces the snow to re-crystallize, forming grains similar in size and shape to grains of sugar.

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How-To for building a homemade water filter.

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This Water Filter is very easy and quick to make. Most, if not all the materials can be found in or around your house. A Water Filter can be a necessary survival item if you have no access to clean water.

Materials Needed:

- Water Bottle
- Scissors or Knife
- Coffee Filter, Cotton Balls, or fabric.
- Sand or charcoal
- Gravel
- Large gravel or small rocks
- Cup to hold filtered and non-filtered water.

Step 2:

2) Using your knife, scissors, or anything sharp, make a small hole in the center of the cap. Make sure the cap is on tight!
In my case i used a small screwdriver and easily made a nice hole in the center.
A knife or scissors work just as well.

Share

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Step 6:

6) Finally add your larger gravel or small rocks into the bottle. Again, 1-2 inches is enough.
Your water filter is now complete! Just put the filter over your cup for filtered water.
With the other cup, pour the dirty/muddy water into the filter.

Step 7:

Watch your dirty water come out filtered!
Boil the filtered water to completely rid of all bacteria and such!
Enjoy!

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Simple Water Filter Out of a Waterbottle

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Simple Water Filter Out of a Waterbottle: This Water Filter is very easy and quick to make. Most, if not all the materials can be found in or around your house. A Water Filter can be a necessary survival item if you have no access to clean water.

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Common Misconceptions about Weathering, Erosion, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes

Earth science is a particularly difficult branch of science for elementary students. Processes such as weathering and erosion happen on a long time scale, making them difficult to visualize. Students can certainly see the effects of weathering and erosion, but observing the processes themselves is more difficult. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are more tangible, but their cause is rooted in the theory of plate tectonics, a concept not taught until the middle school years.

The long period of time and large scale on which these processes occur lend themselves to many misconceptions. These misconceptions may form as individuals attempt to make sense of the natural world, or as a result of the difference between scientific and everyday language. In other cases, misconceptions may actually form or be strengthened as a result of instruction.

Once formed, misconceptions can be tenacious - persisting even in the face of discrepant events or careful instruction. Research has documented that students may be able to provide the "correct" answer in science class yet still not abandon their previously formed idea.

Even though targeting student misconceptions is difficult, teachers should be cognizant of their students' beliefs before, during, and after instruction. Formative assessment can provide insight and guidance for planning lessons and meeting student needs.

In this article, we discuss some common misconceptions about weathering and erosion, volcanoes, and earthquakes. We also provide tools for formative assessment and ideas for teaching the correct scientific concepts.
Misconceptions about Volcanoes Misconceptions about Earthquakes Erosion Volcanoes and Earthquakes Weathering and Erosion Volcanoes and Earthquakes This article was written by Jessica Fries-Gaither. For more information, see the Contributors page. Email Kimberly Lightle, Principal Investigator, with any questions about the content of this site. Copyright December 2008 - The Ohio State University. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0733024. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. This work is licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Creative Commons license

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Common Misconceptions about Weathering, Erosion, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes - Earth's Changing Surface - Beyond Penguins and Polar Bears

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Earth science is a particularly difficult branch of science for elementary students. Processes such as weathering and erosion happen on a long time scale, making them difficult to visualize. Students can certainly see the effects of weathering and erosion, but observing the processes themselves is more difficult.

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Article about Earthquakes and Erosion

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Researchers from laboratories at Géosciences Rennes (CNRS/Université de Rennes 1)*, Géosciences Montpellier (CNRS/Université de Montpellier 2) and Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (CNRS/IPGP/Université Paris Diderot), in collaboration with a scientist in Taiwan, have shown that surface processes, i.e. erosion and sedimentation, may trigger shallow earthquakes (less than five kilometers deep) and favor the rupture of large deep earthquakes up to the surface. Although plate tectonics was generally thought to be the only persistent mechanism able to influence fault activity, it appears that surface processes also increase stresses on active faults, such as those in Taiwan, one of the world's most seismic regions.

The work is published in Nature Communications on 21 November 2014.

Over the last few decades, many studies have focused on the evolution of mountain range landscapes over geological time (1 to 100 million years). The aim is to better understand the dynamics and interactions between erosion, sedimentation and tectonic deformation processes. Recent work has shown that Earth's surface can undergo major changes in just a few days, months or years, for instance during extreme events such as typhoons or high magnitude earthquakes. Such events cause many landslides and an increase in sedimentary transport into rivers, as was the case in 2009 when typhoon Morakot struck Taiwan, leading to abrupt erosion of landscapes. Such rapid changes to the shape of Earth's surface alter the balance of forces at the site of deep active faults.

In Taiwan, where erosion and deformation rates are among the highest in the world, the researchers showed that erosion rates of the order of 0.1 to 20 millimeters per year can cause an increase of the order of 0.1 to 10 bar in stresses on faults located nearby. Such forces are probably enough to trigger shallow earthquakes (less than five kilometers deep) or to favor the rupture of deep earthquakes up to the surface, especially if they are amplified by extreme erosion events caused by typhoons and high magnitude earthquakes. The researchers have thus shown that plate tectonics is not the only persistent mechanism able to influence the activity of seismic faults, and that surface processes such as erosion and sedimentation can increase stresses on active faults sufficiently to cause shallow earthquakes.

Thanks to an analysis of the relationships between surface processes and active deformation of Earth in near real-time, this study provides new perspectives for understanding the mechanisms that trigger earthquakes.

*The Géosciences Rennes laboratory is part of the Observatoire des Sciences de l'Univers de Rennes.
Story Source:
Materials provided by CNRS. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference:

Philippe Steer, Martine Simoes, Rodolphe Cattin, J. Bruce H. Shyu. Erosion influences the seismicity of active thrust faults. Nature Communications, 2014; 5: 5564 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6564

Cite This Page:

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earthquakes; natural disasters; geology; oceanography; earth science; water; weather; caving

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Researchers have shown that surface processes, i.e. erosion and sedimentation, may trigger shallow earthquakes (less than five kilometers deep) and favor the rupture of large deep earthquakes up to the surface.

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NPS.gov Homepage (U.S. National Park Service)

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The National Park Service cares for special places saved by the American people so that all may experience our heritage.

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After four major landslides, one death, several destroyed and damaged homes, washed out roads, and a $50,000 clean-up bill, steep slope construction rules are coming to Maggie Valley.

The valley is a top contender for having the most landslides in Western North Carolina in recent years. But like most towns and counties in Western North Carolina, Maggie Valley lacked specific construction standards for building on steep slopes.

Maggie is posied to become one of the few that do, perhaps a clairvoyant move given their landslide track record.

Maggie Valley leaders unanimously voiced support to adopt a wholesale version of the same slope rules that are already on the books elsewhere in Haywood County.

While Haywood County passed steep slope rules in 2007, they don't apply inside town limits. Towns have the choice of adopting the county's ordinance, adopting their own, or having none at all.

Maggie is the first town in Haywood County to adopt the county's slope rules as its own. Waynesville has its own version of steep slope rules, which are looser in some ways and stricter in others than the county's version.

Maggie Valley is a hotspot for second homes and vacation cabins. There's only one direction to build in Maggie, however, and that's up. Its topography - as its name suggests - is a long narrow valley with mountains rising up on both sides.

"We have more steep slopes than anywhere else," said Mayor Ron DeSimone.

And with the second-home building market still in the doldrums, potential buyers should be assured slope construction isn't shoddy.

"You want to obviously curtail (slope) failures because that's bad for business," DeSimone said.

Three ways to get slope rules passed

Mention steep slope regulations, and it's usually a recipe for months if not years of heated and controversial discourse. The building and real estate community can quickly get their hackles up at the thought of mountain construction being handcuffed.

But in Maggie, slope rules got a unanimous stamp of approval from the planning board and town board no sooner than the idea was broached, although the town still has to hold formal public hearing before the slope rules are official.

There are a few reasons why the steep slope rules were met with a seemingly indifferent shrug. Obviously, Maggie didn't have to write its own, so that saved untold months of wrangling over how strict or lose the language should be.

But there were clearly other factors that led Maggie's town board to unceremoniously sign on to the county's slope ordinance with no backlash to speak of.

1. Make the rules innocuous

For starters, Haywood County's - and now Maggie Valley's - steep slope rules just aren't that big a deal.

"It's not oppressive," DeSimone said.

The standards only kick in when slopes are exceedingly steep or tall. Very little mountainside construction ever exceeds the too-steep or too-tall threshold to trigger the slope ordinance.

In the rare case the ordinance is triggered, it doesn't make the particular slope off-limits for building. It simply requires the builder or grader to submit a slope plan penned by an engineer or similar professional - intended to make sure the construction is done in a safe way and won't collapse.

"It sets a baseline and says 'If you build over the baseline, get an engineer,'" DeSimone said.

The slope ordinance, by its very existence, encourages builders to build gentler or smaller slopes so they don't trigger mandatory engineer oversight.

"We find folks are building better slopes as a result," said Marc Pruett, the county's sediment and erosion control officer who oversees the slope ordinance also

Because the slope rules apply everywhere else in Haywood County, contractors realize they're nothing to be afraid of.

"There is almost no one who works in Maggie Valley who hasn't already worked under this ordinance," DeSimone said.

2. Find a champion in the building community

The steep slope rules had the ideal champion in DeSimone, who is not only the mayor but also a builder himself. He could allay fears in the building community from first-hand experience of working within the rules himself.

DeSimone doesn't merely have a working knowledge of the slope rules - he actually helped write them. He was the president of the Haywood County Home Builders Association when the county set to work making a set of slope construction rules. The association was naturally interested, but at first, it wasn't clear what role they would take: would they fight it and try to stop it, or angle for a seat at the table.

"Our main concern was it would curtail development or make it cost prohibitive," DeSimone said. "I kind of defused that and said 'Let's get involved with it.'"

They opted for a seat at the table, and the result was a weaker ordinance than the one originally drafted and endorsed by the planning board. But, it was an ordinance nonetheless, which is more than many places have.

3. Point out bad examples

There's a third reason the slope rules got a surprisingly warm welcome in Maggie. It's seen how unpleasant and destructive landslides can be - and costly. The town was stuck with a $50,000 clean-up bill following a landslide below Ghost Town in the Sky amusement park in 2009. The total cost of clean up and slope repairs were $1.4 million, with the rest coming from state and federal funds.

The landslide tore a half-mile swath down the mountainside, taking out a road in two places and brushing dangerously close to homes on either side of its path. A couple homes sustained damage, others had their drinking wells and yards torn up.

The landslide originated from a series of stair step retaining walls built to hold back a near vertical wall of earth. When the mountaintop was leveled off to build the amusement park in the 1960s, soil was pushed over the side then shored up with retaining walls. But, it had posed problems for decades, requiring regular repairs and bolstering with new walls to keep the mountainside in place.

It's possible the Ghost Town landslide never would have occurred if the slope ordinance had been in place.

The cause of the slide is still in dispute - possibly faulty retaining walls or maybe leaking water lines behind the walls. But either way, the ordinance could have avoided it. The ordinance bans waterlines from being buried in fill slopes. Meanwhile, it would have limited how tall and steep the slope behind the retaining walls could be, thus not overtaxing their ability to hold back the soil behind them.

DeSimone sees the ordinance as a responsible step to protect taxpayers.

"In light of the liability the town faced in the last slope failure, I thought it was prudent for Maggie Valley to adopt some sort of steep slope ordinance," DeSimone said.

Sediment and erosion on tap too

Maggie Valley will also adopt Haywood County's version of sediment and erosion control laws. Right now, sediment and erosion control laws are monitored by the state. But there are only three sediment and erosion control agents to cover a 23-county area. They are stretched so thin that site inspections rarely occur unless there are complaints.

The county's sediment and erosion control department works with developers over the course of the project to make sure violations don't occur in the first place.

"We see ourselves as partners in the development process," Pruett said.

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Slope rules come to Maggie Valley: A lesson to learn from

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After four major landslides, one death, several destroyed and damaged homes, washed out roads, and a $50,000 clean-up bill, steep slope construction rules are coming to Maggie Valley. The valley is a top contender for having the most landslides in Western North Carolina in recent years.

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Western North Carolina ("WNC") hosts the highest peak east of the Rockies in the United States in Mount Mitchell. Due to the popularity and views of North Carolina's Blue Ridge Mountains, people have always sought to move here and build in and on the mountains. Many of these people desire to build houses with a view and, therefore, are looking to build on slopes, up mountainsides. For a number of reasons, including, but not limited to, landslides, erosion, sedimentation, drainage, septic plans and needs, and other environmental, ecological, and safety issues, building on or at slopes, should be properly researched, planned, and implemented (if done at all in many locations). It is important for contractors and landowners building or planning to build on slopes to be aware of the risks, social and environmental issues, and increased costs that come with such construction.

Over three quarters of the land in western North Carolina has a slope in excess of 30 percent. Unfortunately North Carolina, as a state, has been unable to enact legislation to provide guidance and protection in slope construction. Over the years there have been three state legislative efforts to establish a measure of control over steep slope building practices, but none have been successfully passed. The primary state slope construction bill that has been percolating in the legislature all this time would require builders to consult an engineer when building on slopes that exceed a threshold of 40 percent. Fortunately, in the State's shadow of inactivity, local counties and communities have taken efforts to codify and provide ordinances for slope construction (discussed below).

Most engineers, and other people in the know, recommend that slope cuts and fills should not exceed a 30 percent grade. For now, the situation is a buyer beware ("as is") type of matter, wherein a prospective purchaser of land better commit him or herself to researching the property, including geology and soil makeup, prior to purchase to see if slope construction at site is at all possible and safe. Even if someone "can" build on a slope, does not mean they should, and such construction will come with increased considerations, maintenance, costs, and responsibility to the fellow man and surrounding environment.
Why:
There are very serious reasons for slope construction legislation and planning in Western NC:

Landslides - Western North Carolina mountain home sites are susceptible to earth movement because of geologic features and water-reactive soils. Landslides have also become more common in the last 20 years in the region partly because of the increase in slope construction, with improper planning and implementation, as well as construction in locations where homes should not be built. Geologists and engineers urge professional assessment and expert planning when naturally unstable slopes are altered for residential development. Landslides not only destroy homes and force sediment into local waterways, but endanger lives.

Erosion and Sedimentation - If the slope is too great, it is almost impossible to prevent/control erosion. Erosion not only destroys the site and endangers a home to landslides and drainage problems, but it causes the sedimentation of our local waterways, which are one of primary natural advantages of the region. As a source of life, our waterways provide opportunities for the local economy in the form of recreational activities, farming and wildlife, as well as the record diversity of flora and fauna that occur throughout WNC. Sedimentation caused by erosion is one of the greatest dangers to our aquatic ecosystems, behind direct pollution and effluents.

Septic Systems - Approximately 75 percent of the homes in WNC depend on individual sewage treatment and disposal systems. However, a large percentage of the land, 90 percent in some counties, has severe limitations for conventional septic systems. Every prospective property owner should know that an adequate septic system has to be approved by the Environmental Health Section of the respective county health department before a new home is allowed to be occupied or connected to a source of electricity. It is important to evaluate the site for septic suitability before purchasing the property. Septic systems may not be located in cut and filled areas.

Flooding - Faster and increased runoff can cause increased flooding, which has become an all too real and present problem in the region. Annual precipitation in portions of WNC is the highest in the eastern United States. The steep, mountain slopes permit rapid storm-water runoff. Decreasing natural use and absorption of rainfall by constructing developments and homes on slopes, especially improperly, can increase the rate and amount of runoff that then ends up in our valleys, creeks, and rivers, thereby endangering homes, businesses and lives at the lower levels.
How:
When construction occurs on slopes, some amount of leveling is necessary to prepare the house site and build an access road. On steep slopes, leveling involves a process called cut and fill whereby rock and soil are cut from higher slopes and used to fill in the land below. It is important to stabilize both the cut and the fill banks in order to control erosion/sedimentation and building site stability. Slopes of cuts and fills should not exceed 30 percent grade, depending on the type of rock and soil that is present. In other words, the cut bank and the fill bank should rise or fall no more than 30 vertical feet for every 100 feet of horizontal length. The local Soil and Water Conservation District can assist you in evaluating your land for site stability and in developing plans to protect it.

Once cut and fill has occurred, vegetation should be established on exposed land as soon as possible. It is important that native vegetation is used for this manner, as Western NC has a history of introduced invasive species that overrun the local flora and, potentially, the property as a whole. Further, efforts should be made prior to the cut and fill work to preserve trees and vegetation on the building site, where possible, in order to assist with preventing erosion and protecting the site during excavation and grading.
Regulations and Ordinances:
Buncombe County is host to Asheville, the largest City in WNC and, because of that, hosts one of the largest populations of the region. Buncombe County has attempted to enact ordinances to provide guidance for those interested in building on slopes through its Steep Slope/High Elevation Overlay District and Protected Ridge Overlay District tables. These tables outline what kind of structures are allowed in what locations and on what sites. They, however, do not necessarily provide guidance as to where it is not safe to build or what measures need to be taken during construction on certain slopes. Other counties have either developed or are in the process of developing geological maps to highlight potential areas of instable soils and landslide concern. Additionally, Haywood County has enacted slope construction ordinances, which can be found here: http://www.haywoodnc.net/downloads/engineering/SLOPE%20ORDINANCE(rev).pdf. Finally, the North Carolina Building Code, Appendix J, on Grading, does provide rules and guidelines for grading, cut and fill, of slope construction sites (below).

Buncombe County's Steep Slope/High Elevation Overlay District and the Protected Ridge Overlay District (Sec. 78-644 and 78-645, respectively, of the Buncombe County Building Code) were established in recognition that the development of land in steep, mountainous areas involves special considerations and requires unique development standards. The Steep Slope/High Elevation Overlay District applies to property in Buncombe County at elevations of and above 2,500 feet above sea level and having a natural slope of 35 percent or greater, as specifically identified and delineated on the zoning map entitled " The Official Zoning Map of Buncombe County, North Carolina." Uses are permitted in the High Elevation/Steep Slope Overlay District pursuant to the Buncombe County table (located here, Pgs. 41-45: http://www.buncombecounty.org/common/planning/zoning/zoning_ordinance.pdf).

The Protected Ridge Overlay District applies to all Buncombe County mountain "ridges" whose elevations are at least 3,000 feet and whose elevations are 500 or more feet above the elevation of an adjacent valley floor and including 500 foot buffers measured horizontally from the center line of the ridge as specifically identified and delineated on the zoning map entitled " The Official Zoning Map of Buncombe County, North Carolina." Further, in accordance with North Carolina General Statutes §153A-342, the Protected Ridge Overlay District provides additional requirements on properties within one or more underlying general districts relating to the erection, construction, reconstruction, alteration, repair, or use of buildings, or structures including, but not limited to, height, number of stories and size of buildings and other structures. Uses are permitted in the Protected Ridge Overlay District pursuant to the Buncombe County table (located here, Pgs. 48-51: http://www.buncombecounty.org/common/planning/zoning/zoning_ordinance.pdf).

Developers looking to design and install a hillside development (defined below) in Buncombe County, must fill out and submit a Hillside Development Application ( http://www.buncombecounty.org/common/planning/HillsideDevelopmentAppChecklist.pdf). Buncombe County defines a Hillside Development as a major or minor development, as defined by Sec. 70-5 of the Buncombe County Building Code, that has an average slope of 25% or greater, or has an average natural terrain slope of less than 25% but 30% of the tract has a slope greater than 35%. Buncombe County's Online Slope Calculator can be found here: http://www.buncombecounty.org/governing/depts/gis/News_Detail.aspx?newsID=7430.

Finally, regulations state that cut and fill slopes for both minor and major subdivisions shall be constructed to ensure adequate stability of the natural materials encountered. All storm drainage for both minor and major subdivisions shall be adequate to facilitate the road maintenance without excessive cost, and not cause flooding on private property from storm runoff of the design frequency. All pipe culverts, storm sewers and appurtenances shall be free of all debris and silt buildup and shall be structurally and hydraulically sound, and functioning in a normal manner. All drainage ditches shall be of such a width and depth and with such a slope as to carry the anticipated discharges. Paved ditches or riprap shall be required where necessary. Culvert sizing and materials shall meet or exceed the requirements approved by the NCDOT in "Subdivision Roads Minimum Construction Standards," Utility Requirements, current edition.

According to NC Building Code on Grading (Appendix J), excavations of cut surfaces shall be no more than 50% slope, unless the owner or authorized agent furnishes a geotechnical report justifying a steeper slope (Sec. J106). Similarly, the slope of fill surfaces shall also be no more than 50%, unless the owner or authorized agent furnishes a geotechnical report justifying a steeper slope (Sec. J107).

Finally, there is the North Carolina Erosion and Sedimentation Pollution Control Program, which affects most "land disturbing activities" and will be outlined and discussed in a subsequent blog article. It is very much related to mountainside, ridge, and slope construction in addition to all kinds of general construction and development.

Both the landowner and contractor/developer can be liable for financial and legal penalties to the State, County, and adjacent landowners for not properly following rules and regulations pertaining to slope construction and related erosion and sedimentation. The government could potentially stop or prevent construction and not allow individuals to move into and live in a violating home.
Mineral Rights in NC:
It is also important for prospective land purchasers and owners to know that under North Carolina law, ownership rights to the minerals on or under the ground can be severed from the surface rights to the land and transferred as a separate estate. The owner of the mineral rights is legally entitled to use the surface of the property to reach and remove the minerals he or she owns. Therefore, before one buys property, he or she should check the deed closely to determine whether the mineral rights have been severed and belong to someone other than the owner of the surface rights to the property.

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Slope Construction, Considerations and Regulations, in Western NCMerithew Law | Merithew Law

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Western North Carolina ("WNC") hosts the highest peak east of the Rockies in the United States in Mount Mitchell. Due to the popularity and views of North Carolina's Blue Ridge Mountains, people have always sought to move here and build in and on the mountains.

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MunicodeNEXT, the industry's leading search application with over 3,300 codes and growing!

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USGS Earthquake Hazards Program, responsible for monitoring, reporting, and researching earthquakes and earthquake hazards

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Weathering & Erosion Project Guidelines PPT

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Weathering & Erosion Project Guidelines PPT