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Protein need (percentage) decreases as size or age increases. As growth rate slows, less protein is required, and older fish are capable of consuming more carbohydrates.

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Rearing temperature affects how early or late the larvae develops and starts feeding.

At 24°C onset of feeding occurs at about eight days after hatching (12–13 days post-spawning)

At 30°C feeding initiates at four days (8–9 days post-spawning).

Even though the fry still possess yolk reserves these are inadequate to meet all the growth demands.

If initial feeding is delayed even by a day, the growth of fry may be sub-optimal and the fry will be small for their age.

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As fish grow their feed intake as percent body weight (BW) decreases.

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Tilapia can survive in pH ranging from 5 to 10, but optimal pH is between 6 to 9.

Low pH increases ammonium (NH4), while high pH would increases ammonia (NH3).

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Addition of most minerals had no significant effect on the growth of tilapia, even though tilapia are able to absorb minerals from the culture water. Only the addition of phosphorus increased weight gain, FCR and PER, likely due to phosphorus caused phytoplanktons in the water to increase, natural food source of tilapia

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some ingredients used in formulated feed
1. trash fish: high in omega 3 and 6 fatty acids
2. rice and wheat bran: allows feed to have higher water stability
3. soybean, peanut and rapeseed cake: cheaper, more sustainable
4. dead or residual yeast: used a probiotics
5. insects and silkworm pupae: rich source of proteins and lipids

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Types and amount of vitamin needed to be added depends on other dietary factors. For eg. Vitamin E only have to be added at a concentration of 50-100mg/Kg of feed when the feed consist of 5% lipid content.

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The fewer larger eggs (1.5mm) are kept safe in the female's mouth.

Allows for longer development and larger hatching length of 4mm.

After hatching, larvae can still hide in the mouth for protection and use up their yolk.

Allow gut to develop before first feeding.

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When water temperatures are below 17°C or above 32°C, farmers reduce or stop feeding as fish feeding rates will decrease.

In high temperatures, feeds of higher protein content may be disadvantageous and result in fish diseases.

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fingerlings: 35-40%
adults: 20-25%

*generally, crude protein need to be above 25%

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Used as feed binders and cheap source of energy. Tilapia has been shown to be able to utilise as much as 70% of carbohydrates in the diet. Complex carbohydrates such as starch better utilised as compared to disaccharides and monosaccharides.

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Essential fatty acids: n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Tilapia do not require highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs)

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Essential amino acids required include: Arginine, Histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysune, methionine, phenyl alanine, threonine, tryptophan and valin

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Pyloric appendices

Increase the surface area to increase absorption

providing abundant surface area for digestion and absorption of nutrients from its mainly plant-based food sources

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proximate composition of their feeds at each stage

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proximate composition of their feeds at each stage

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types of fish larvae that are produced by these fishes

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types of fish larvae that are produced by these fishes

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larvae:
- fed directly with artificial feed (high in protein and limited in ingredients)
- 6-8% of total body weight
- fed with detritus, neustons, daphnia magna

adults:
- algae, duckweed and other plants
- decrease feeding rate as they grow larger
- 1-2% of total body weight