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-together with DNA, it's involved in protein synthesis, mRNA(messenger RNA) takes the code out to the ribosomes and tRNA(transfer RNA) brings amino acids to the ribosomes to make proteins
-info is transferred from DNA to RNA to proteins, this is known as the central dogma of molecular biology

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A permanent change in DNA caused by mutagens. Sometimes mutations can affect a single nitrogen base.

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1. Silent mutations: No effect because the amino acid didn't change
2. Beneficial mutation: Mutation that allows humans to digest dairy products.
3. Genetic disorder: Cystic fibrosis, Sickle cell anemia
4. Cancer: result of mutation in a gene controlling cell division rate

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Gene:
-small
-point & frameshift
-piece of DNA
-1 gene

Chromosome:
-big
-lots of genes
-extra chromosome (Down's- extra 21)
-missing a chromosome (Turner- just 1 x)

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DNA- Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
-present in all living things
-made up of nucleotides(phosphate group, sugar, & 1 of 4 nitrogen bases)

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Adenine and Guanine are the bigger nitrogen bases, labeled as purine, and cytosine and thymine are the smaller nitrogen bases, labeled as pyrimidine A pairs with T and G pairs with C.

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Erwin Chargaff: A-T "Always Together" & G-C "Good Couple"
Rosalind Franklin: photo 51
Maurice Wilkins: steals photo
James Watson & Francis Crick:
-"discovered" the structure of DNA
-1953
-won nobel prize
-called the shape "double helix"

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Outside:
-sugar & phosphate
-held by covalent bonds

Inside:
-"rungs" or steps of the ladder
-2 nitrogen bases (A & T or C & G)

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DNA replication is making an exact copy of DNA. Cells must replicate their DNA before they can divide. This ensures that each daughter cell gets a copy of the genome, and therefore, successful inheritance of genetic traits. DNA replication is an essential process and the basic mechanism is conserved in all organisms.

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-46 chromosomes in every Body Cell(Somatic Cell)
-lots of DNA
-Chromosomes = DNA coiled up
-Chromatin = long & thin DNA
-any mistakes in replication are mutations

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1. Anytime you need a new cell (whenever cells divide)
2. When you grow
3. Cuts & bruises
4. Broken bones
5. Replacing old & worn cells

DNA replication happens all the time

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-DNA always forms in the 5* -> 3* direction
-Whichever way the pentagon is upright, DNA will form in the opposite direction
-There are two strands when DNA is unzipped, the Leading Strand and the Lagging Strand

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1. DNA unwinds & unzips
-helicase is an enzyme that helps with unzipping DNA
-SSB proteins hold the DNA apart
2. RNA primase makes RNA primer (tells DNA polymerase where to start)
3. DNA Polymerase: Enzyme that acts like a "match-maker"; makes sure that the New Nucleotides pair up properly
-also proofreads
-gets rid of RNA primer

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-Hot mess ~ not very easy
-discontinuous
1. helicase unwinds
2. rna primase makes primer
3. dna polymerase lays down nucleotides in the 5' 3' direction
4. end up forming okazaki fragments
5. polymerase proofreads & gets rid of primers
6. ligase- enzyme that acts like "glue" & sticks fragments together

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Made up of Nucleotides
-suger = ribose
-phosphate groups
-1 of 4 nitrogen bases (A, G, C, U)

*Is single-stranded; can go in and out of nucleus

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1. rRNA- Ribosome RNA
-makes up the ribosome
2. mMRNA- Messenger RNA
-made in nucleus
-"photo copy' of DNA
-copy of DNA that leaves the nucleus & goes to ribosome
3. tRNA- Transfer RNA
-weird clover shape
-carries amino acids to ribosomes

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DNA
-double stranded
-thymine
-deoxyribose
-must stay in nucleus
-1 type

RNA
-single stranded
-uracil
-ribose
-can go in and out of nucleus
-3 types

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-3 mRNA nucleotides(bases) = codons
-3 tRNA nucleotides(bases) = anticodons
-3 bases code for 1 amino acid
-anticodons are specific... tRNA wil only bring a certain amino acid to ribisomes

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Transcription: to write across
-in the nucleus
-making mRNA
1. helicase- unzips small segment of DNA
2. RNA polymerase- makes sure RNA nucleotides pair up correctly on 1 side
3. mRNA detaches and leaves the nucleus
-DNA seals back up

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Translation
-at ribosome
-"change the language" (translating mRNA into amino acids)
1. mRNA slides through the Ribosome
2. Ribosome "reads" the mRNA looking for the start codon
3. tRNA brings in the correct amino acid
4. The next tRNA brings another amino acid to form a peptide bond(tough bond that forms between amino acids)
5. Continues until the ribosome reads a stop codon(UAA, UGA)

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Transitional complex forms, and tRNA brings first amino acid in polypeptide chain to bind to start codon on mRNA

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tRNA's bring amino acids one by one to add to polypeptide chain

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Release factor recognizes stop codon, translational complex dissociates, and completed polypeptide is released.

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The phosphate groups and deoxyribose are held together by covalent bonds

Nitrogen bases are held together by hydrogen bonds, Adenine and thymine having 2, and Guanine and cytosine with 3.

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Structure:
-the sugar (deoxyribose) attracts to the base
-2 sides are anti-parallel
-the order of the nitrogen bases is what makes each individual different.
-gene: small piece of DNA that codes for one trait (traits like tongue rolling, blond hair, or double jointed)

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DNA's unique structure enables the molecule to copy itself during cell division. When a cell prepares to divide, the DNA helix splits down the middle and becomes two single strands. These single strands serve as templates for building two new, double-stranded DNA molecules - each a replica of the original DNA molecule.

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Topoisomerase- nuclear enzymes that play essential roles in DNA replication, transcription, chromosome segregation, and recombination.
Single-Stranded Binding Protein (SSB)- binds with high affinity in a cooperative manner to single-stranded DNA and does not bind well to double-stranded DNA. After binding single-stranded DNA, SSB destabilizes helical duplexes, thereby allowing DNA polymerases to access their substrate more easily.
Helicases- enzymes that bind and may even remodel nucleic acid or nucleic acid-protein complexes.
DNA polymerase- is responsible for the process of DNA replication, during which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied into two identical DNA molecules.
Okazaki Fragment- short sequences of DNA nucleotides that are synthesized discontinuously and later linked together by the enzyme DNA ligase to create the lagging strand during DNA replication.
DNA primase- an enzyme involved in the replication of DNA and is a type of RNA polymerase.
Primer RNA- RNA that initiates DNA synthesis.
DNA ligase- a specific type of enzyme, a ligase, that facilitates the joining of DNA strands together by catalyzing the formation of a phosphodiester bond.

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Replication involves the production of identical helices of DNA from one double-stranded molecule of DNA. Enzymes are vital to DNA replication since they catalyze very important steps in the process. The overall DNA replication process is extremely important for both cell growth and reproduction in organisms.

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Replication takes about 1 hr to complete, due to the simultaneous action of multiple DNA polymerases across multiple replication forks on the various chromosomes in the cell.

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The concentration of these four bases will make together 100%. For example, if Adenine was 41%, Thymine would also be 41% and Cytosine and Guanine would be 9% each

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-Your DNA could stretch from the Earth to the sun and back about 600 times
-We're all 99.9% alike
-Genes make up only about 3 percent of your DNA
A DNA test can reveal you're more Irish than your siblings
-The human genome contains 3 billion base pairs of DNA

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The nucleotides are of great importance to living organisms, as they are the building blocks of nucleic acids, the substances that control all hereditary characteristics.

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-2 identical strands of DNA(half old half new)(semi-conservative)