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Physical features

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fiberglass is a  cheap insulator that is non flammable and

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Dear Fellow Explorers,

It's neat to think that there are some places on Earth we have not visited. Many people think of outer space as the next frontier-but there is still much to learn and understand about Antarctica, the deep ocean, the microscopic world-and even our own back yards! Sometimes I wonder if some of the places I work in Antarctica have been visited before; many of the maps we use of the ocean floor have large blank areas and there are no records that they have been explored.

Antarctica was the very last continent discovered. Though its existence was predicted for thousands of years, no one actually knew it was there! In the days of the Greek and Roman philosophers, people imagined that such a continent needed to exist at the bottom of the world to balance the top-heavy Northern Hemisphere. The Greeks named this mythical land "Antarktikos," land "opposite the Bear." The Great Bear constellation of "Arktos" was above the North Pole, and the Greeks and Romans imagined this hypothetical continent being opposite from it. (By the way, that Great Bear is known today as the Big Dipper.)

As explorers began to fan out across the globe from Western Europe, the mythical continent of Antarktikos was the target of many expeditions. The early explorers spent months, sometimes years, at sea searching for the elusive continent. They fought illness, hunger, loneliness, and bad weather, driven by dreams of tropical land masses and riches, seeking to fulfill desires for wealth, national pride, personal fame, and scientific discovery.

In the late 1700's, Captain Cook led a two year expedition that circumnavigated the Southern Ocean-and killed the dream that the Antarktikos was a tropical land mass filled with riches. Cook's crew never even saw Antarctica; they battled through thick pack ice, fog, and bad weather for two years before giving up and returning home to England. Cook and his crew concluded that if the continent did indeed exist, it was farther south, covered with ice, and virtually inaccessible. Despite their grim reports, many expeditions of sealers and whalers set out for the Southern Ocean to find the rich hunting grounds. Interestingly, these expeditions did not add much to our knowledge of the region because they wanted to protect their best fishing spots.

The next phase of exploration was driven by national pride and personal fame. Explorers set out for the glory of their own countries, each striving to be the first to reach the farthest point in the Southern Ocean, the first to discover the South Magnetic Pole, or the even more fertile fishing grounds that could bring wealth to the nation, the first to reach the South Pole, or the first to cross Antarctica.

These early explorers faced incredibly difficult conditions with far less preparation than we have today. The explorers of the 1800's and early 1900's knew far less about the lands they were exploring, and they had less technology to help them. (Of course, what we know now will be overshadowed by our technology and discoveries in the future!) Early explorers did not know the Antarctic environment and did not have the special foods, fabrics, and types of transportation we have in Antarctica today. Their courage, discoveries, and failures provided knowledge that would help future explorers prepare for their expeditions. Scott and his field team perished because, in part, they started for the pole too late in the summer season; knowledge of the seasonal temperature distribution would have aided their planning. Mawson's expedition lost one member and valuable supplies in a crevasse; today's expeditions often have maps of crevasse fields and experienced mountainers. Shackleton's ship Endurance was crushed by sea ice in the Weddell Sea, a difficult region to navigate; sea ice now can be monitored on satellite images and photography acquired by fly-overs, allowing ships to carefully plan their courses.

Scientific exploration, aided by new technology, really got underway in the 1920's. In 1929, Admiral Richard E. Byrd flew over South Pole-it was the first time much of Antarctica had been seen by air! Byrd's expedition ushered in rapid aerial surveys and aerial photos mapping of Antarctica and helped to establish advanced communications by radio.

Until 1950, explorers worked mostly in solitude, and mostly for the glory of just one country. But a group of scientists realized that exhaustive research could only succeed if teams began to pool talents and findings. In 1950 the International Council of Scientific Unions received a proposal for a collaborative study of Antarctica, called the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Sixty-seven countries were to participate, with Antarctic investigation as one of the two objectives-the second objective of the IGY was to explore aspects of outer space. The IGY began in 1957.

The cooperation of the IGY participants, and concerns that countries would make claims on the land, helped to bring about a more lasting form of international government. It began with the creation in 1957 of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) to manage the way scientists in Antarctica shared their research. Today, SCAR continues to offer guidance on issues of Antarctic scientific research and environment.

An even stronger resolution came about in 1959, when representatives of twelve nations met at the National Science Foundation (NSF) in Washington, D.C. to create the Antarctic Treaty. The Treaty, which took effect since 1961, outlines international cooperation for scientific study in Antarctica. Among its mandates is the designation of Antarctica as a space for scientific, not military, research. The Treaty also puts aside any claims on Antarctica territories; the treaty does not resolve territorial claims and does not impact any existing claim in any way. In addition, no new claims can be made while the Treaty is in effect.

Today, many views of Antarctic ownership exist, but they fall into four basic groups.

Countries that believe Antarctica belongs to no nation, but is available for traditional claims on new territories (Argentina, Chile, Australia, France, New Zealand, Norway, United Kingdom)

Countries that do not recognize the claims (above), but reserve the right to make claims in the future (Russia, United States)

Countries that neither recognize claims by other countries nor make claims of their own

Countries that believe Antarctica is part of the common heritage of all humankind

Under the Antarctic Treaty, no country actually owns Antarctica or parts of Antarctica, and no country can exploit the resources of the continent while the Treaty is in effect. Periodically, the Treaty is reviewed and renewed. Other components are added, after the countries agree. Over time, the Antarctic Treaty has developed into the Antarctic Treaty System. The Antarctic Treaty System includes protection of seals and marine organisms and offers guidelines for the gathering minerals and other resources.

Twenty-six countries-the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties-oversee the Antarctic Treaty System. These nations have always had an active presence in Antarctica, and they maintain voting rights on Antarctic issues. Fifteen nations maintain "observer" status. Observer countries attend the meetings but cannot vote.

Antarctica's international "government" is truly unique-what other area is totally governed by an international panel? What other region is protected for scientific investigation-for peaceful purposes only? I wonder why we can't use this model of government across the rest of our globe!

Exploration in Antarctica today is vastly different from its beginnings. Perhaps most notably, though the early explorers were all men from Western Europe, today, men and women (including me!) of all nationalities investigate the secrets of this last continent. Today's expeditions are founded on the discoveries made by earlier explorers; they are also made possible with advances in technology, rigid safety training and guidelines, and a cooperative international pursuit of understanding. And yet, while all of this has advanced our ability to comfortably visit this remote continent, the extreme conditions of the coldest, driest, windiest, highest continent, the same conditions that challenged the earlier expeditions, still challenge explorers today!

Well, that's all for now-I'm off to continue my exploration, and I hope you enjoy yours!

All the best,

Stephanie

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Dear Fellow Explorers, It's neat to think that there are some places on Earth we have not visited. Many people think of outer space as the next frontier-but there is still much to learn and understand about Antarctica, the deep ocean, the microscopic world-and even our own back yards!

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A crate from Robert Falcon Scott's Terra Nova expedition still sits in his hut at Cape Evans, Ross Island.

Long before anyone ever set eyes on Antarctica, many were sure it was there. Belief in a Terra Australis Incognita -"Unknown Southern Land"-first took hold among the ancient Greeks. Great believers in symmetry, the Greeks were convinced that the great landmass in the Northern Hemisphere would have to be balanced by an equally great landmass in the Southern Hemisphere.

Confirmation of the southern continent was long in coming; Terra Australis remained incognita for centuries. Captain Cook set out on a massive three-year search for it in 1772. After being driven back north again and again by pack ice, Cook concluded that if there was a southern continent, it wasn't worth getting to.

Cook unwittingly sowed the seeds of future exploration, however, with his detailed reports of ample seal and whale populations in the Southern Ocean. Hunters flocked to the area and drove seal populations to near extinction. In 1821, a seal hunter driven off-course by a violent storm was the first to land on Antarctica. With seal populations waning, however, interest in exploring the high southern latitudes waned as well.

But in the late 1800s, a frenzy of whale hunting in the Southern Ocean spurred a frenzy of exploration; the "heroic age" of Antarctic exploration began. Akin to the "space race" of the 1960s, countries vied to be first to explore the icy continent, and reaching the South Pole became a worldwide obsession. A team led by British explorer Robert Scott came within 463 miles (877 km) of the pole in 1902. Another British team, this time led by Ernest Shackleton, came even closer in year 1908, but was forced to turn back just 97 miles (180 km) from the goal.

Traveling by dogsled, a Norwegian team led by Roald Amundsen was the first to arrive at the South Pole on December 14, 1911. A competing British team led by Scott arrived just a month later, greeted by the demoralizing site of the Norwegian flag. Plagued by accidents and storms, and short of food, all five members of the Scott team perished on the return trip.

Ernest Shackleton led a later ill-fated effort to traverse the entire continent by dogsled in 1914. Before even landing, the Endurance was trapped and crushed by pack ice, leaving the crew to winter over on the ice. Shackleton and five others set out for help in a tiny lifeboat, braving 100-foot (30 m) waves in the Southern Ocean, securing a rescue by whalers four months later. Miraculously, all survived.

The onset of World War I cooled interest in Antarctica, but exploration began anew with the advent of the airplane. American pilot Robert Byrd was the first to fly over the South Pole in 1929 and made repeated flights over the continent during the 1930s, 40s, and 50s. Scientifically minded, Byrd conducted many experiments in his Antarctic travels, setting the precedent for Antarctica as a land devoted to scientific research.

After World War II, countries around the globe scrambled to establish footholds-and claim territory-on Antarctica. A flurry of base-building ensued. Many bases were also built in anticipation of the 1957-1958 International Geophysical Year (IGY). U.S. base-building efforts centered on McMurdo Station (1955) and the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station (1957). Tensions over territorial claims led to the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, establishing Antarctica as a place for only peaceful, scientific purposes, and excluding military or mining activities.

Today, exploration of Antarctica is still mainly scientific, though tourists are "exploring" the continent in increasing numbers. In 2007, 46,000 tourists visited Antarctica, mostly on cruise ships. Fearing disruption of the breeding sites of penguins and other wildlife, some are calling for tighter limits on tourism to reduce environmental impact.

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Antarctic Exploration | Ice Stories: Dispatches From Polar Scientists

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A crate from Robert Falcon Scott's Terra Nova expedition still sits in his hut at Cape Evans, Ross Island. Long before anyone ever set eyes on Antarctica, many were sure it was there. Belief in a Terra Australis Incognita -"Unknown Southern Land"-first took hold among the ancient Greeks.

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There are plenty of cheap and common insulation materials available on the market today. Many of these have been around for quite some time. Each of these insulation materials have their own ups and downs. As a result, when deciding which insulation material you should use, you should be sure to be aware of which material would work the best in your situation. We have considered differences like R-value, price, environmental impact, flammability, sound insulation and other factors below. Here are the 5 most common types of insulation materials:

1. Fiberglass

Fiberglass is the most common insulation used in modern times. Because of how it is made, by effectively weaving fine strands of glass into an insulation material, fiberglass is able to minimize heat transfer. The main downside of fiberglass is the danger of handling it. Since fiberglass is made out of finely woven silicon, glass powder and tiny shards of glass are formed. These can cause damage to the eyes, lungs, and even skin if the proper safety equipment isn't worn. Nevertheless, when the proper safety equipment is used, fiberglass installation can be performed without incident.

Fiberglass is an excellent non-flammable insulation material, with R-values ranging from R-2.9 to R-3.8 per inch. If you are seeking a cheap insulation this is definitely the way to go, though installing it requires safety precautions. Be sure to use eye protection, masks, and gloves when handling this product.

2. Mineral Wool

Mineral wool actually refers to several different types of insulation. First, it may refer to glass wool which is fiberglass manufactured from recycled glass. Second, it may refer to rock wool which is a type of insulation made from basalt. Finally, it may refer to slag wool which is produced from the slag from steel mills. The majority of mineral wool in the United States is actually slag wool.

Mineral wool can be purchased in batts or as a loose material. Most mineral wool does not have additives to make it fire resistant, making it poor for use in situation where extreme heat is present. However, it is not combustable. When used in conjunction with other, more fire resistant forms of insulation, mineral wool can definitely be an effective way of insulating large areas. Mineral wool has an R-value ranging from R-2.8 to R-3.5.

3. Cellulose

Cellulose insulation is perhaps one of the most eco-friendly forms of insulation. Cellulose is made from recycled cardboard, paper, and other similar materials and comes in loose form. Cellulose has an R-value between R-3.1 and R-3.7. Some recent studies on cellulose have shown that it might be an excellent product for use in minimizing fire damage. Because of the compactness of the material, cellulose contains next to no oxygen within it. Without oxygen within the material, this helps to minimize the amount of damage that a fire can cause.

So not only is cellulose perhaps one of the most eco-friendly forms of insulation, but it is also one of the most fire resistant forms of insulation. However, there are certain downsides to this material as well, such as the allergies that some people may have to newspaper dust. Also, finding individuals skilled in using this type of insulation is relatively hard compared to, say, fiberglass. Still, cellulose is a cheap and effective means of insulating.

4. Polyurethane Foam

While not the most abundant of insulations, polyurethane foams are an excellent form of insulation. Nowadays, polyurethane foams use non-chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gas for use as a blowing agent. This helps to decrease the amount of damage to the ozone layer. They are relatively light, weighing approximately two pounds per cubic foot (2 lb/ft^3). They have an R-value of approximately R-6.3 per inch of thickness. There are also low density foams that can be sprayed into areas that have no insulation. These types of polyurethane insulation tend to have approximately R-3.6 rating per inch of thickness. Another advantage of this type of insulation is that it is fire resistant.

5. Polystyrene

Polystyrene is a waterproof thermoplastic foam which is an excellent sound and temperature insulation material. It comes in two types, expanded (EPS) and extruded (XEPS) also known as Styrofoam. The two types differ in performance ratings and cost. The more costly XEPS has a R-value of R-5.5 while EPS is R-4. Polystyrene insulation has a uniquely smooth surface which no other type of insulation possesses.

Typically the foam is created or cut into blocks, ideal for wall insulation. The foam is flammable and needs to be coated in a fireproofing chemical called Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD). HBCD has been brought under fire recently for health and environmental risks associated with its use.

Other Common Insulation Materials

Although the items listed above are the most common insulation materials, they are not the only ones used. Recently, materials like aerogel (used by NASA for the construction of heat resistant tiles, capable of withstanding heat up to approximately 2000 degrees Fahrenheit with little or no heat transfer), have become affordable and available. One in particular is Pyrogel XT. Pyrogel is one of the most efficient industrial insulations in the world. Its required thicknesses are 50% - 80% less than other insulation materials. Although a little more expensive than some of the other insulation materials, Pyrogel is being used more and more for specific applications.

Other insulation materials not mentioned are natural fibers such as hemp, sheep's wool, cotton, and straw. Polyisocyanurate, similar to polyurethane, is a closed cell thermoset plastic with a high R-value making it a popular choice as an insulator as well. Some health hazardous materials that were used in the past as insulation and are now outlawed, unavailable, or uncommonly used are vermiculite, perlite, and urea-formaldehyde. These materials have reputations for containing formaldehyde or asbestos, which has essentially removed them from the list of commonly used insulation materials. .

There are many forms of insulation available, each with their own set of properties. Only by researching each kind thoroughly can you discover which will be the right kind for your particular needs. As a quick overview:

Aerogel is more expensive, but definitely the best type of insulation.

Fiberglass is cheap, but requires careful handling.

Mineral wool is effective, but not fire resistant.

Cellulose is fire resistant, eco-friendly, and effective, but hard to apply.

Polyurethane is an all around good insulation product, though not particularly eco-friendly.

Polystyrene is a diverse insulation material, but its safety is debated.

Related Posts: The Difference Between Hot And Cold Insulation Materials Insulation Ratings: Calculating R Factor, K Factor & C Factor

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5 Most Common Thermal Insulation Materials | Thermaxx

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There are plenty of cheap and common insulation materials available on the market today. Many of these have been around for quite some time. Each of these insulation materials have their own ups and downs. As a result, when deciding which insulation material you should use, you should be sure to be aware of which material would work the best in your situation.

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The Ultimate Guide to Military Backpacks and Beyond

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The Ultimate Guide to Military Backpacks

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Interactive guide to the most popular military backpacks and rucksacks. We have product comparisons, current pricing, ratings, reviews and shopping tips.

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Durable, Impact Resistant Plastic Materials | Curbell Plastics

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Tough impact resistant plastics - e.g. ABS, Polycarbonate - used for industrial, construction and military applications. Learn more at Curbell Plastics.

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Jessica and Paul's recent research has revealed that elephant seals can tolerate much lower levels of oxygen than humans. Humans lose consciousness with more than a quarter of their oxygen supply left, while elephant seals operate down to nearly zero.

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Also known as a "two-tube" shock absorber, this device consists of two nested cylindrical tubes, an inner tube that is called the "working tube" or the "pressure tube", and an outer tube called the "reserve tube". At the bottom of the device on the inside is a compression valve or base valve.

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Anders, M.  Backpack basics.  Boys life magazine,  18-21 June 2015

Mark Anders educates on the basics of choosing a hiking backpack.

Mark Anders speaks about choosing a backpack based on size, structure, and carrying capacity.

This source is useful to me as I am creating a backpack that needs to be durable and efficient.

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Wikipedia,

The many contributors to Wikipedia talk about the shock absorber

Shock absorbers are made with a cushion, a spring, and a piston.  They dampen the impact of something falling to keep things from being damaged.

This is useful to me because I am working on a way to put shock absorbers in the straps of my backpack to keep it from coming down hard when I jump.

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The Toketsu Trekker was developed specifically for studying in the harsh cold weather of Antarctica.  The Toketsu Trekker was custom designed to solve problems pertaining to water freezing , falling into the ocean, uncomfortable straps, cargo space, and the bitter cold.
The Toketsu Trekker was designed with specific tools such as heating, shock absorbers on the shoulders, and a handy area for food and other provisions.  It has much space for any tools needed by the scientists.  We created the Toketsu Trekker prioritizing comfort and efficiency.  I wanted to add a laser cannon but apparently that isn't "realistic".  Either way, our backpack is built with durability, comfort, and resistance in mind so you can travel the frozen desert as conveniently as possible.