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Baby sea turtles are particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of plastic pollution, according to a new study which found around half of the recently hatched reptiles had stomachs full of plastic.

In recent years, scientists have realised that animals ranging from plankton to whales are regularly consuming plastic, since around 10 million tons of it ends up in the sea every year.

Turtles were some of the first creatures ever observed consuming plastic, with reports of bags being found in their stomachs stretching back to the 1980s.

Turtles are dying after becoming tangled in fishing gear and rubbish

Despite the attention this problem has received, there is still very little known about the overall effect plastic is having on ocean animals.

While some plastic can pass harmlessly through animals' digestive systems, it can also accumulate and kill them by either blocking or tearing their guts.

There is also some evidence to suggest that plastic can leach toxic chemicals into their surroundings, although the impact this is having on animals is still largely speculative.

A new study published in the journal has attempted to quantify the harm that plastic is having on the turtle population of eastern Australia.

In their research, a team led by Dr Britta Denise Hardesty from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) examined data from nearly 1,000 dead turtles to understand the role plastic played in their deaths.

They found that the youngest turtles appeared to be most susceptible to plastic pollution.

As marine plastic litter mounts, what's the evidence on harm?

Just over half of the post-hatchling individuals had ingested plastic, and around a quarter of the slightly older juveniles were affected, compared to around 15 per cent of adults.

While the number of plastic pieces in the reptiles' guts varied wildly from one to over 300, the scientists were able to deduce that turtles have a 50 per cent probability of death after consuming 14 pieces.

The work emerges as another study documents the global decline of turtles and tortoises that has left over 60 per cent of the world's species either extinct or facing extinction.

Ways to reduce your single-use plastic

Two centuries ago, sea turtles in the Caribbean Sea were estimated to number in the tens of millions, while more recently their numbers were estimated to be in the tens of thousands.

Together with their land-based relatives, these creatures play pivotal roles in shaping global ecosystems.

"We must take the time to understand turtles, their natural history, and their importance to the environment, or risk losing them to a new reality where they don't exist," said Mickey Agha, a researcher at University of California, Davis, who contributed to the study.

"Referred to as a shifting baseline, people born into a world without large numbers of long-lived reptiles, such as turtles, may accept that as the new norm."

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Half of dead baby turtles found by Australian scientists have stomachs full of plastic

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Baby sea turtles are particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of plastic pollution, according to a new study which found around half of the recently hatched reptiles had stomachs full of plastic. In recent years, scientists have realised that animals ranging from plankton to whales are regularly consuming plastic, since around 10 million tons of it ends up in the sea every year.

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Maria Trimarchi, Patrick J. Kiger, Vicki M. Giuggio

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Top 10 Eco-friendly Substitutes for Plastic

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Without a doubt, plastic is useful. It’s also everywhere — filling up landfills and recycling bins. These 10 twists on the common polymer are trying to change that reality.

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Today, you can hardly look around you and not spot some item that is made entirely from plastic or has some plastic ingredient. This only proves that from its inception up to now plastic has managed to become popular building material of millions of useful items, but it is not perfect. Plastic has several disadvantages that prevent it from becoming universal building block of modern human civilization, and because of that many governments strictly control its use and create complex law that govern its creation, recycling and environmental impact of waste plastic and chemicals that are used in its creation.

Here are some of the biggest disadvantages of plastic:

Durability - Plastic is light, moldable, sturdy, and can have countless forms, but one of the most known features is its durability. Plastic is artificially created polymer compound which can survive many centuries before nature is able to degrade it (some degrade into basic ingredients and some only divide into very small pieces). This troublesome ability of plastic doesn't have great immediate impact on our environment, but its continuous dumping into seas and land will eventually create problems for future generations. Even with all this durability, plastic products are not indestructible and it cannot be used as a basic building block for everything we need.

Environmental Harm - Ever increasing plastic production since 1950s managed to saturate world with waste plastic product that can cause big effects on our environment. Decomposing of plastic product can last from 400 to 1000 years with newer "degradable" compounds, but before that degradation can happen waste plastic will continue to clog our waterways, oceans, forests, and other natural habitats that are filled with animals who mistake dangerous plastic for food. Chemical dangers are also high, because both creation and recycling of plastic produce toxic materials of many kinds.

Chemical Risk - Not only that creation and recycling of plastic can cause serious environmental risk, but some of the additives that are infused in plastic can cause permanent harm to our metabolism. Chemicals such as phthalates and BPA are widely used as an additive that prevents degrading of plastic structure, but they also interfere with our natural hormone levels which can cause serious problems to both males and females (lower testosterone levels in men, and premature girl puberty).

Choking Hazard - Plastic is one of the most popular building materials for small items. This is most evident in toy industry, where vast majority of children toys is manufactured with plastic. These toys and small plastic objects of many uses can easily get into children's hands (especially babies and toddlers) that unknowingly put them in their mouth. To prevent these serious accidents, governments have implemented detailed set of rules which force manufacturers to clearly label their plastic products and warn users of the possible chocking potential. Another problematic plastic product that can cause serious injuries or death are plastic bags (grocery or trash bags)who can sometimes end up wrapped around children faces, disrupting their breathing.

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Plastic Disadvantages - Negative Effects of Plastic

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Today, you can hardly look around you and not spot some item that is made entirely from plastic or has some plastic ingredient. This only proves that from its inception up to now plastic has managed to become popular building material of millions of useful items, but it is not perfect.

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The use of plastic products has increased significantly in the recent past, with many enterprises joining the industry and many more varieties of plastics being made. Firms consider plastics easier and cheaper to manufacture as compared to other materials -- such as metals and stones -- because they're produced from byproducts of crude oil and can be recycled. Consumers also consider plastics lighter, compared to other packaging materials. However, the wide use of plastic products has shortfalls.

Harmful Nature

Disposable plastics used in packaging foodstuff meant for human consumption contain harmful compounds. Improper disposal of these packaging products leads to these harmful compounds finding their way to water bodies, where they dissolve over a long time due to their non-biodegradable nature. Littered plastics are also harmful to animals because they occasionally eat them and die. Additionally, plastics fabrication involves the use of potentially dangerous chemicals, which are added as stabilizers or colorants. Most of these chemicals have not undergone an ecological risk appraisal, and their impact on human well-being and the environment is presently vague. One example is phthalates, which are used in the manufacture of PVC.

Environmental Degradation

Plastics are generally non-biodegradable; hence, they may take centuries to decay. This is due to the intermolecular bonds that constitute plastics, whose structure ensures that the plastics neither corrode nor decompose. Plastics disposed of indecently get washed away to water reservoirs. They clog waterways and float on reservoirs, polluting and making them unsightly.

Low Melting Point

Plastics generally have a low melting point, so they can't be used where heat levels are high. This also means they cannot be used as protective barrier for furnaces. Some plastic products are highly flammable -- polystyrene, acrylics, polyethylene and nylons commonly used in packaging, home and office appliances. This makes them a fire hazard.

Durability

Plastics generally have a short useful life compared to metals. This short life cycle results in pile-ups of unwanted garbage in the office, home or waste yards. Although some of the plastics are recycled, most remain uncollected in dump sites and pollute the environment. Additionally, polythene bags are easily carried by wind, something that makes them almost impossible to collect for recycling.

About the Author

Now based in Toronto, Sandra Tracey began writing career-related articles while living in London in 2003. Her work appears in Career Journal, an online magazine offering guidance and mentoring to university graduates. Tracey holds a Bachelor of Arts in journalism from the Manchester College of Communications and a diploma in business management from London Business School.

Photo Credits

Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images

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The Disadvantages of Using Plastic Products

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The use of plastic products has increased significantly in the recent past, with many enterprises joining the industry and many more varieties of plastics being made. Firms consider plastics easier and cheaper to manufacture as compared to other materials -- such as metals and stones -- because they're produced ...

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Newsela | The Great Pacific Garbage Patch counts 1.8 trillion pieces of trash

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The Great Pacific Garbage Patch, located between California and Hawaii, is carrying almost 80,000 metric tons of plastic - 16 times what scientists thought.

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Newsela | Sea turtles are munching on plastic garbage floating in the ocean

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Sea turtles dangerously munch on ocean plastics

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Are You Seasoning Your Food With Microplastics? (You Totally Are)

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Are Microplastics in Our Water Becoming a Macroproblem? | National Geographic

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The problem with single-use plastic & how you can avoid it

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Single-use plastic includes products such as straws, bags, and bottles; pretty much any plastic item that’s made for temporary use.

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The problem with single-use plastic & how you can avoid it

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Our single use plastic addiction | News | Conservation Guide

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The problems with plastic pollution. (Photo by Richard Carey)

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Single-use plastics, or disposable plastics, are used only once before they are thrown away or recycled. These items are things like plastic bags, straws, coffee stirrers, soda and water bottles and most food packaging.

We produce roughly 300 million tons of plastic each year and half of it is disposable! World-wide only 10-13% of plastic items are recycled. The nature of petroleum based disposable plastic makes it difficult to recycle and they have to add new virgin materials and chemicals to it to do so. Additionally there are a limited number of items that recycled plastic can be used.

Petroleum based plastic is not biodegradable and usually goes into a landfill where it is buried or it gets into the water and finds it's way into the ocean. Although plastic will not biodegrade (decompose into natural substance like soil,) it will degrade (break down) into tiny particles after many years. In the process of breaking down, it releases toxic chemicals (additives that were used to shape and harden the plastic) which make their way into our food and water supply.

These toxic chemicals are now being found in our bloodstream and the latest research has found them to disrupt the Endocrine system which can cause cancer, infertility, birth defects, impaired immunity and many other ailments.

We produce hundreds of millions of tons of plastic every year, most of which cannot be recycled. It's obvious that we need to use less plastic, move towards environmentally sustainable products and services and come up with technology that recycles plastic more efficiently.

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What is single use plastic? - Plastic Free Challenge

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Single-use plastics, or disposable plastics, are used only once before they are thrown away or recycled. These items are things like plastic bags, straws, coffee stirrers, soda and water bottles and most food packaging. We produce roughly 300 million tons of plastic each year and half of it is disposable!

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Newsela | Evidence shows that microplastics are harmful to ocean zooplankton

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Newsela | Tiny Pacific island has no humans but gets much of world's plastic trash

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The Pacific's Henderson Island might well be renamed Plastic Island due to its overwhelming collection of garbage.

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What really happens to the plastic you throw away - Emma Bryce

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Here's Why Plastic Is SO MUCH Worse Than You Think!

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Plastic Pollution: How Humans are Turning the World into Plastic

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European Schoolnet is a network of 33 European Ministries of Education, based in Brussels, Belgium. As a not-for-profit organisation, we aim to bring innovation in teaching and learning to our key stakeholders: Ministries of Education, schools, teachers, researchers, and industry partners.

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What's sterile, strong, and everywhere around us? Plastic. Used in everything from food containers to shoe soles, this popular polymer is quickly revealing itself to have adverse health effects. Find out how you can protect yourself from endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and learn proper recycling protocol to minimize impact on the environment.

Plastic Fantastic

The benefits of plastics are unmatched by any other material, says the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI). It is light, easily shaped, strong, and inexpensive. Its ability to guard against contamination makes it useful in sterile medical environments such as hospitals.

Plastic kitchenware offers a practical alternative to glass and ceramic dishes. Plastic preserves flavour and freshness when used to store food and beverages. Leak-proof and child-resistant plastic containers are useful for holding dangerous household products such as bleach, ammonia,and other caustic cleaners.

Plastic packaging withstands the rigors of shipping, and plastic containers provide good storage solutions at home and in the office. It seems that the benefits of using plastic are boundless-but are they really?

Problems With Plastic

"Our obsession with plastic is loading up the planet with toxic chemicals, and we're only beginning to understand the serious consequences these substances have on health," says Lisa Gue, environmental health policy analyst with the David Suzuki Foundation.

Gue says that chemicals contained in plastic migrate into the environment when the plastic products containing them are discarded. These chemicals are building up in our bodies and in our environment.

But according to the SPI, only 9 percent of waste in landfills is plastic. They say plastic can be an environmentally friendly, low-cost alternative to other products. Think for a moment of plastic grocery bags. They take up one-seventh of the space paper bags do in landfills and don't produce toxic fumes when incinerated, says the SPI, who also note that incinerated plastic helps the waste mix burn more efficiently.

Is It Safe?

When it comes to the impact on public health, the widespread use of plastics is a contentious issue.

"There are some places that plastics just don't belong," says Jill Thompson, Citizens for Change coordinator with the BC Chapter of the Sierra Club of Canada. "Our food and water shouldn't touch plastic, at least not in the way it is currently manufactured."

The concern is that plastic food-storage containers are leaching chemicals such as bisphenol A into our food. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical used during the manufacturing of certain hard, clear plastics (the kind reusable water bottles, baby bottles, and sippy cups are made from). It mimics the hormone estrogen and disrupts reproductive functions, Gue explains.

Studies have linked bisphenol A to prostate cancer, miscarriages, and birth defects. However, Health Canada says that the level of BPA in these products is low and normal use doesn't pose a risk to your health.

Also of concern are phthalates (pronounced thay-lates), which give plastic its pliable, flexible properties, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers, or PBDEs, used as a fire retardant. Studies link both to hormone- and reproductive-system damage.

What Should You Do?

"Plastics can and do make sense in some contexts," says Thompson, noting that plastic automobile parts have made lighter cars that consume less fossil fuel. "But we aren't yet doing enough when it comes to plastic recycling," she says.

Still, like 'em or not, plastics are here to stay. So do your part and become plastic savvy. Familiarize yourself with what plastics can be recycled, and keep reusable plastics out of landfills.

For more detailed info on plastics recycling in Canada, visit cpia.ca/epic. Check out myplasticbags.ca for lists of municipalities and retailers in your area that recycle their own plastic bags.

Plastic Recycled-What Your Common Household Plastics Can Be Recycled Into:

household product: disposable utensils, meat packing type of plastic: polystyrene recycled into: CD cases, office accessories

household product: bottles, peanut butter jars type of plastic: polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) recycled into: stuffing for pillows, carpet backing, and even certain types of sweatshirts

household product: shampoo bottles type of plastic: high-density polyethylene recycled into: other bottles, plastic lumber

household product: most bottle tops type of plastic: polypropylene recycled into: ice scrapers, industrial packing cases

household product: bottles, film for wrapping meat type of plastic: polyvinyl chloride recycled into: insulation for cables and drain pipes

household product: bags, grocery bags type of plastic: low-density polyethylene recycled into: plastic lumber and compost bins

Tips for Consuming Less Plastic:

Make an effort to purchase products with minimal plastic packaging.

Use cloth bags for grocery shopping.

Reuse plastic containers within your home. For example, plastic grocery bags can be reused for additional trips to the grocery store, as lunch bags, gym bags, and garbage can liners. Yesterday's yogourt container can become tomorrow's lunch pail. Old margarine containers can become storage vessels for an assortment of household items.

Familiarize yourself with plastic recycling in your community.

BPA and You

BPA is a chemical used during the manufacturing of polycarbonate plastic.

What products is it in?

It's found in baby bottles, sippy cups, and reusable water bottles.

Should you be concerned?

Studies link it to prostate cancer, miscarriages, and certain birth defects, but Health Canada says it does not pose a health risk.

If you're concerned about the health and environmental risks, avoid reusable plastic water bottles, other hard plastic bottles, and sippy cups.

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Your complete source for natural health and wellness

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What's sterile, strong, and everywhere around us? Plastic. Used in everything from food containers to shoe soles, this popular polymer is quickly revealing itself to have adverse health effects. Find out how you can protect yourself from endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and learn proper recycling protocol to minimize impact on the environment.

Plastic Fantastic

The benefits of plastics are unmatched by any other material, says the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI). It is light, easily shaped, strong, and inexpensive. Its ability to guard against contamination makes it useful in sterile medical environments such as hospitals.

Plastic kitchenware offers a practical alternative to glass and ceramic dishes. Plastic preserves flavour and freshness when used to store food and beverages. Leak-proof and child-resistant plastic containers are useful for holding dangerous household products such as bleach, ammonia,and other caustic cleaners.

Plastic packaging withstands the rigors of shipping, and plastic containers provide good storage solutions at home and in the office. It seems that the benefits of using plastic are boundless-but are they really?

Problems With Plastic

"Our obsession with plastic is loading up the planet with toxic chemicals, and we're only beginning to understand the serious consequences these substances have on health," says Lisa Gue, environmental health policy analyst with the David Suzuki Foundation.

Gue says that chemicals contained in plastic migrate into the environment when the plastic products containing them are discarded. These chemicals are building up in our bodies and in our environment.

But according to the SPI, only 9 percent of waste in landfills is plastic. They say plastic can be an environmentally friendly, low-cost alternative to other products. Think for a moment of plastic grocery bags. They take up one-seventh of the space paper bags do in landfills and don't produce toxic fumes when incinerated, says the SPI, who also note that incinerated plastic helps the waste mix burn more efficiently.

Is It Safe?

When it comes to the impact on public health, the widespread use of plastics is a contentious issue.

"There are some places that plastics just don't belong," says Jill Thompson, Citizens for Change coordinator with the BC Chapter of the Sierra Club of Canada. "Our food and water shouldn't touch plastic, at least not in the way it is currently manufactured."

The concern is that plastic food-storage containers are leaching chemicals such as bisphenol A into our food. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical used during the manufacturing of certain hard, clear plastics (the kind reusable water bottles, baby bottles, and sippy cups are made from). It mimics the hormone estrogen and disrupts reproductive functions, Gue explains.

Studies have linked bisphenol A to prostate cancer, miscarriages, and birth defects. However, Health Canada says that the level of BPA in these products is low and normal use doesn't pose a risk to your health.

Also of concern are phthalates (pronounced thay-lates), which give plastic its pliable, flexible properties, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers, or PBDEs, used as a fire retardant. Studies link both to hormone- and reproductive-system damage.

What Should You Do?

"Plastics can and do make sense in some contexts," says Thompson, noting that plastic automobile parts have made lighter cars that consume less fossil fuel. "But we aren't yet doing enough when it comes to plastic recycling," she says.

Still, like 'em or not, plastics are here to stay. So do your part and become plastic savvy. Familiarize yourself with what plastics can be recycled, and keep reusable plastics out of landfills.

For more detailed info on plastics recycling in Canada, visit cpia.ca/epic. Check out myplasticbags.ca for lists of municipalities and retailers in your area that recycle their own plastic bags.

Plastic Recycled-What Your Common Household Plastics Can Be Recycled Into:

household product: disposable utensils, meat packing type of plastic: polystyrene recycled into: CD cases, office accessories

household product: bottles, peanut butter jars type of plastic: polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) recycled into: stuffing for pillows, carpet backing, and even certain types of sweatshirts

household product: shampoo bottles type of plastic: high-density polyethylene recycled into: other bottles, plastic lumber

household product: most bottle tops type of plastic: polypropylene recycled into: ice scrapers, industrial packing cases

household product: bottles, film for wrapping meat type of plastic: polyvinyl chloride recycled into: insulation for cables and drain pipes

household product: bags, grocery bags type of plastic: low-density polyethylene recycled into: plastic lumber and compost bins

Tips for Consuming Less Plastic:

Make an effort to purchase products with minimal plastic packaging.

Use cloth bags for grocery shopping.

Reuse plastic containers within your home. For example, plastic grocery bags can be reused for additional trips to the grocery store, as lunch bags, gym bags, and garbage can liners. Yesterday's yogourt container can become tomorrow's lunch pail. Old margarine containers can become storage vessels for an assortment of household items.

Familiarize yourself with plastic recycling in your community.

BPA and You

BPA is a chemical used during the manufacturing of polycarbonate plastic.

What products is it in?

It's found in baby bottles, sippy cups, and reusable water bottles.

Should you be concerned?

Studies link it to prostate cancer, miscarriages, and certain birth defects, but Health Canada says it does not pose a health risk.

If you're concerned about the health and environmental risks, avoid reusable plastic water bottles, other hard plastic bottles, and sippy cups.

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Your complete source for natural health and wellness

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Newsela | Instructional Content Platform

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Lego trees, bushes and leaves will now be made from an eco-friendly, sugar-based plastic.

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Bioplastics could put some shrimp in your Barbie

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Teen researchers are looking to natural materials like shrimp shells and banana peels to make plastics ecofriendly and biodegradable.

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Updated April 30, 2018 14:47:23

Getting rid of plastics entirely is highly unlikely, but also unnecessary. What we need to do is learn to stop using bad plastics and start using good plastics instead, a polymer scientist says.

Last week scientists revealed higher amounts of micro plastics in the Arctic sea ice, as well as in ocean floor sediments two kilometres below the Great Ocean Bight.

Greens Senator Peter Wilson said Australia's current recycling crisis highlights why plastics need to be removed from everyday life.

But can society function without plastics? And are there some plastics worth keeping?

Professor Anthony Ryan, a professor of physical chemistry at the University of Sheffield, said it was not plastic that was the problem, but how people chose to deal with plastic.

"Plastic's inanimate, so it can't be bad, it's what people do with it that's bad," he said.

"The reason that we have plastic leaking out of landfill and into the sea is because there's a collusion between packaging manufacturers and consumers to use single use plastic because it makes the bottom line better for producers and makes products cheaper for consumers."

Professor Ryan said until consumers gave up their addiction to convenience and said no to single use plastic, plastic providers would continue to produce it.

"It's convenience at the cheapest price," he said.

He said in the end it was neither the consumer nor the producer who were paying the price of collecting and recycling the waste. Instead it was the whole of society picking up the cost.

"The tragedy is that you chucked your waste into somebody else's yard," he said.

So how do we get rid ofbad plastics?

Professor Ryan said regulation was needed to stop the use of "bad" plastics - that is, single use plastics.

For that to happen he said plastics producers and governments worldwide would have to come together and decide which plastics would be best used for packaging materials.

At the moment he said there was no regulation at all, so producers could use whatever packaging material they wanted.

"And often you end it with multi-layer films - so many different plastics in one film that are impossible to separate and pre-process," he said.

"They provide all sorts of benefits that you would get from having a thicker film of a single plastic that you could reuse over and over.

"I would advocate that we actually go back to the future and we return to refilling packets.

"So refilling bottles and buying things loose, using packages over and over again and actually take an inconvenience in our lives in order to be kinder to the environment."

He said plastic did not have to end up sitting in landfills, and urged for a bigger emphasis on reusing certain products, such as bottles.

"In Germany they have a deposit scheme where plastic bottles are washed and refilled," he said.

"When I was a kid, glove bottles were washed and refilled - if I wanted a packet of crisps, I went and found that empty lemonade bottle, took it back to the shop, collected the deposit.

"If we gave plastic bottles, for example, economic value, then they would be collected, refilled and reused."

Because plastics are long molecules they do not mix, so nothing can be done with waste recovered from rubbish bins without a lot of labour into separating the different kinds of plastic.

Professor Ryan's solution was to have a standard polyethylene, PET and nylon that could be used to make bottles and boxes that could go on to be reused.

"Then there wouldn't be the leakage into the environment, because those packaging objects would have intrinsic value though the deposit scheme," he said.

A life without plastic is unlikely

Professor Ryan said to try and imagine what life would look like without plastic, you simply had to remove every item of clothing that was made from a polymer plastic case.

"Every bit of your clothing would be gone," he said.

"Even if it is made from cotton, it's made from a polymer and that polymer is called cellulose.

"And if you look inside ... the concern about finding micro plastics everywhere, they could just as easily be naturally occurring micro plastics like cellulose fibers."

He said there was a lot of confusion surrounding plastic being poisonous.

"If it lasts forever and is inert, it can't be poisonous at the same time," he said.

Professor Ryan said if someone consumed tiny pieces of plastic, then the intestines would simply do its job and clear out the waste.

"You wouldn't end up with a big pile of microbeads hanging around in your stomach," he said. "They'd get cleared like everything else gets cleaned out... like small seeds get cleared."

Topics: recycling-and-waste-management, plastics-and-rubber, environment, australia

First posted April 30, 2018 13:55:50

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Stop hating on plastic and learn how to use it right, expert says

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Updated April 30, 2018 14:47:23 Getting rid of plastics entirely is highly unlikely, but also unnecessary. What we need to do is learn to stop using bad plastics and start using good plastics instead, a polymer scientist says.

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Before the invention of plastic, the only substances that could be molded were clays (pottery) and glass. Hardened clay and glass were used for storage, but they were heavy and brittle. Some natural substances, like tree gums and rubber, were sticky and moldable. Rubber wasn't very useful for storage because it eventually lost its ability to bounce back into shape and became sticky when heated.

In 1839, Charles Goodyear accidentally discovered a process in which sulfur reacted with crude rubber when heated and then cooled. The rubber became resilient upon cooling -- it could stretch, but it snapped back to its original shape. It also retained its resilience when heated. We now know that the sulfur forms chemical bonds between adjacent rubber polymer strands. The bonds cross-link the polymer strands, allowing them to "snap back" when stretched. Charles Goodyear had discovered the process now known as vulcanization, which made rubber more durable.

In 1846, Charles Schonbein, a Swiss chemist, accidentally discovered another polymer when he spilled a nitric acid-sulfuric acid mixture on some cotton. A chemical reaction occurred in which the hydroxyl groups of the cellulose fibers in the cotton were converted to nitrate groups catalyzed by the sulfur. The resultant polymer, nitrocellulose, could burst into a smokeless flame and was used by the military in place of gunpowder. In 1870, chemist John Hyatt reacted nitrocellulose with camphor to make celluloid, a plastic polymer that was used in photographic film, billiard balls, dental plates and Ping-Pong balls.

In 1909, a chemist named Leo Baekeland synthesized Bakelite, the first truly synthetic polymer, from a mixture of phenol and formaldehyde. The condensation reaction between these monomers allows the formaldehyde to bind the phenol rings into rigid three-dimensional polymers. So, Bakelite can be molded when hot and solidified into a hard plastic that can be used for handles, phones, auto parts, furniture and even jewelry. Bakelite is hard, resistant to heat and electricity, and can't be easily melted or scorched once cooled. The invention of Bakelite led to a whole class of plastics with similar properties, known as phenolic resins.

In the 1930s, a Dupont chemist named Wallace Carruthers invented a plastic polymer made from the condensation of adipic acid and a certain type of diaminohexane monomers that could be drawn out into strong fibers, like silk. This plastic became known as nylon. Nylon is lightweight, strong and durable and became the basis of many types of clothing, coverings (tents), luggage, bags and ropes.

The use of these early polymers became widespread following World War II and continues today. They lead to the creation of many other plastics, like Dacron, Styrofoam, polystyrene, polyethylene and vinyl.

In the next two sections, we'll learn about the chemistry of plastic.

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Before the invention of plastic, the only substances that could be molded were clays (pottery) and glass. Hardened clay and glass were used for storage, but they were heavy and brittle. Some natural substances, like tree gums and rubber, were sticky and moldable.

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How Polymerization Works In A Gas Phase Reactor (or how plastic is made)

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The well-recognized "chasing arrows" symbol we see on plastic containers and products does not mean the product is recyclable. The little number inside the triangle tells the real story.

This article has been updated from its original text.
Within each chasing arrows triangle, there is a number which ranges from one to seven. The purpose of the number is to identify the type of plastic used for the product, and not all plastics are recyclable or even reusable. There are numerous plastic-based products that cannot break down and cannot be recycled.

Understanding the seven plastic codes will make it easier to choose plastics and to know which plastics to recycle. For example, water bottles that display a three or a five cannot be recycled in most jurisdictions in the US. A three indicates that the water bottle has been made from polyvinyl chloride, a five means that it's been made of polypropylene, two materials that are not accepted by most public recycling centers.
Here are the seven standard classifications for plastics, and the recycling and reuse information for each type.

#1 - PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

PET is one of the most commonly used plastics in consumer products, and is found in most water and pop bottles, and some packaging. It is intended for single use applications; repeated use increases the risk of leaching and bacterial growth. PET plastic is difficult to decontaminate, and proper cleaning requires harmful chemicals. Polyethylene terephthalates may leach carcinogens.

PET plastic is recyclable and about 25% of PET bottles in the US today are recycled. The plastic is crushed and then shredded into small flakes which are then reprocessed to make new PET bottles, or spun into polyester fiber. This recycled fiber is used to make textiles such as fleece garments, carpets, stuffing for pillows and life jackets, and similar products.

Products made of #1 (PET) plastic should be recycled but not reused.

To use less PET plastic, consider switching to reusable beverage containers and replacing disposable food packaging with reusable alternatives.

#2 - HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

HDPE plastic is the stiff plastic used to make milk jugs, detergent and oil bottles, toys, and some plastic bags. HDPE is the most commonly recycled plastic and is considered one of the safest forms of plastic. It is a relatively simple and cost-effective process to recycle HDPE plastic for secondary use.

HDPE plastic is very hard-wearing and does not break down under exposure to sunlight or extremes of heating or freezing. For this reason, HDPE is used to make picnic tables, plastic lumber, waste bins, park benches, bed liners for trucks and other products which require durability and weather-resistance. It is also a popular material for recycled plastic raised garden beds. Products made of HDPE are reusable and recyclable.

However, since only about 30-35% of HDPE plastic used in America gets recycled each year, it's wise to use as little as possible. To cut down, consider replacing your disposable produce bags with reusable alternatives.

#3 - PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)

PVC is a soft, flexible plastic used to make clear plastic food wrapping, cooking oil bottles, teething rings, children's and pets' toys, and blister packaging for myriad consumer products. It is commonly used as the sheathing material for computer cables, to make plastic pipes and parts for plumbing, and in garden hoses. Because PVC is relatively impervious to sunlight and weather, it is used to make window frames, garden hoses, arbors, raised beds and trellises.

PVC is dubbed the "poison plastic" because it contains numerous toxins which it can leach throughout its entire life cycle. Almost all products using PVC require virgin material for their construction; less than 1% of PVC material is recycled.

Products made using PVC plastic are not recyclable. While some PCV products can be repurposed, PVC products should not be reused for applications with food or for children's use.

To avoid items made with PVC plastic, consider replacing plastic food wrap with reusable beeswax wraps; plastic toys with reclaimed wool stuffed animals; and your PVC garden hose with a Drinking Water Safe Garden Hose.

#4 - LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

LDPE is often found in shrink wraps, dry cleaner garment bags, squeezable bottles, and the type of plastic bags used to package bread. The plastic grocery bags used in most stores today are made using LDPE plastic. Some clothing and furniture also uses this type of plastic.

LDPE is considered less toxic than other plastics, and relatively safe for use. It is not commonly recycled, however, although this is changing in many communities today as more plastic recycling programs gear up to handle this material. When recycled, LDPE plastic is used for plastic lumber, landscaping boards, garbage can liners and floor tiles. Products made using recycled LDPE are not as hard or rigid as those made using recycled HDPE plastic.

Products made using LDPE plastic are reusable, but not always recyclable. You need to check with your local collection service to see if they are accepting LDPE plastic items for recycling.

To cut down on the amount of LDPE that you consume, try replacing your plastic grocery bags with fabric alternatives and taking a cloth bag to your local bakery the next time you buy a loaf of bread. You can also replace plastic sandwich bags with platinum silicone alternatives, which are heat safe.

#5 - PP (Polypropylene)

Polypropylene plastic is tough and lightweight, and has excellent heat-resistance qualities. It serves as a barrier against moisture, grease and chemicals. When you try to open the thin plastic liner in a cereal box, it is polypropylene. This keeps your cereal dry and fresh. PP is also commonly used for disposable diapers, pails, plastic bottle tops, margarine and yogurt containers, potato chip bags, straws, packing tape and rope.

Polypropylene is recyclable through some curbside recycling programs, but only about 3% of PP products are currently being recycled in the US. Recycled PP is used to make landscaping border stripping, battery cases, brooms, bins and trays. However, #5 plastic is today becoming more accepted by recyclers.

PP is considered safe for reuse. To recycle products made from PP, check with your local curbside program to see if they are now accepting this material.

To cut down on how much PP you consume, opt for reusable straws instead of plastic ones, reusable water bottles, and cloth diapers.

#6 - PS (Polystyrene)

Polystyrene is an inexpensive, lightweight and easily-formed plastic with a wide variety of uses. It is most often used to make disposable foam drinking cups, take-out "clamshell" food containers, egg cartons, plastic picnic cutlery, foam packaging and those ubiquitous "peanut" foam chips used to fill shipping boxes to protect the contents. Polystyrene is also widely used to make rigid foam insulation and underlay sheeting for laminate flooring used in home construction.

Because polystyrene is structurally weak and ultra-lightweight, it breaks up easily and is dispersed readily throughout the natural environment. Beaches all over the world have bits of polystyrene lapping at the shores, and an untold number of marine species have ingested this plastic with immeasurable consequences to their health.

Polystyrene may leach styrene, a possible human carcinogen, into food products (especially when heated in a microwave). Chemicals present in polystyrene have been linked with human health and reproductive system dysfunction.

Recycling is not widely available for polystyrene products. Most curbside collection services will not accept polystyrene, which is why this material accounts for about 35% of US landfill material. While the technology for recycling polystyrene is available, the market for recycling is small. Awareness among consumers has grown, however, and polystyrene is being reused more often. While it is difficult to find a recycler for PS, some businesses like Mailboxes Etc. which provide shipping services are happy to receive foam packing chips for reuse.

Polystyrene should be avoided where possible.

To eliminate polystyrene from your trash, try a reusable coffee cup, compostable or reusable picnic cutlery, and stainless steel takeaway containers.

#7 - Other (BPA, Polycarbonate and LEXAN)

The #7 category was designed as a catch-all for polycarbonate (PC) and "other" plastics, so reuse and recycling protocols are not standardized within this category. Of primary concern with #7 plastics, however, is the potential for chemical leaching into food or drink products packaged in polycarbonate containers made using BPA (Bisphenol A). BPA is a xenoestrogen, a known endocrine disruptor.

Number 7 plastics are used to make baby bottles, sippy cups, water cooler bottles and car parts. BPA is found in polycarbonate plastic food containers often marked on the bottom with the letters "PC" by the recycling label #7. Some polycarbonate water bottles are marketed as 'non-leaching' for minimizing plastic taste or odor, however there is still a possibility that trace amounts of BPA will migrate from these containers, particularly if used to heat liquids.

A new generation of compostable plastics, made from bio-based polymers like corn starch, is being developed to replace polycarbonates. These are also included in category #7, which can be confusing to the consumer. These compostable plastics have the initials "PLA" on the bottom near the recycling symbol. Some may also say "Compostable."

#7 plastics are not for reuse, unless they have the PLA compostable coding. When possible it is best to avoid #7 plastics, especially for children's food. Plastics with the recycling labels #1, #2 and #4 on the bottom are safer choices and do not contain BPA. PLA coded plastics should be thrown in the compost and not the recycle bin since PLA compostable plastics are not recyclable.

The plastics industry has conformed to regulations by applying the required codes to consumer products, but it is up to individuals to read and understand the codes. By understanding these simple classifications, we can best use plastics to our advantage while minimizing the health and disposal issues that may otherwise arise.

To avoid chemicals leaking into your foods from food packaging, try going homemade and storing your leftovers (or your lunches) in platinum silicone or stainless steel.

Related:
Are There Microplastics in Your Drinking Water?
Microbeads: The Smallest Ingredient in Our Plastic Soup

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About the Author

Greg Seaman
Originally from Long Island, NY, Greg Seaman founded Eartheasy in 2000 out of concern for the environment and a desire to help others live more sustainably. As Editor, Greg combines his upbringing in the cities of New York, Boston and San Francisco with the contrast of 31 years of living 'off-grid' to give us a balanced perspective on sustainable living. Greg spends his free time gardening, working on his home and building a wooden sailboat with hand tools.

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The well-recognized "chasing arrows" symbol we see on plastic containers and products does not mean the product is recyclable. The little number inside the triangle tells the real story. This article has been updated from its original text. Within each chasing arrows triangle, there is a number which ranges from one to seven.