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Beneficial plants for marine life

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national oceanic and atmospheric administration

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How to help oceanic life and the water itself

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The threats faced by our ocean planet may seem overwhelming. In the face of pollution, climate change, overfishing, and other daunting problems, what you can do on your own may seem like a drop in the bucket. But if we begin working together now, we can make a huge difference. Here are some ways to get started:

Make the Connection
The first step in making a difference is learning about the ocean and how your actions have an impact. Keep reading to learn everyday things you can do to help protect and restore the seas. And don't forget to share what you've learned with friends and family.

All water on Earth is connected. Even if you don't live near the coast, water that goes down your drain or runs off from your yard can eventually make its way into the ocean. The Mississippi River, for example, is like a giant funnel collecting water from thousands of smaller rivers and streams. It drains 41 percent of the continental U.S. into the Gulf of Mexico. Because of run-off from farms and fields, the Gulf now experiences large annual dead zones, or areas with so little oxygen that sea life cannot survive there. You can help keep the ocean-and other waterways-healthy by reducing your family's use of chemicals inside and out.

On the table: Look for fruits and vegetables that are grown without pesticides (and don't spray them in your own garden). Pesticides contain toxins that can run off into the sea and harm marine life. Also look for produce grown in season and close to where you live. A lot of energy is wasted in transporting foods from far away or growing them in greenhouses at the wrong time of year. See tip number five below to find out how our energy use affects the ocean.
Trim Down Trash
Remember that trash we "throw away" doesn't disappear. And moving water-whether waves on the beach, the stream running through your neighborhood, or rainwater flowing toward the storm drain-can carry loose trash to the ocean. Garbage, especially plastic, is a major hazard for marine animals. Sea birds, turtles, seals, and other animals can mistake floating plastic for food or become tangled in it and die. Help prevent this by curbing your family's throwaway habits.

Garbage patrol: Never litter (inland, on the beach, or from a boat), and participate in beach or waterway clean ups to help stop the flow of trash into the ocean.

When it comes to many of our once-favorite seafoods, there aren't plenty more fish in the sea. In fact, scientists estimate that up to 90 percent of large predatory fish (those that eat other animals-and usually end up on our dinner plates) have disappeared since humans began heavy fishing. Marine animals are also caught and sold for aquariums and as souvenirs. You can avoid trouble by only buying products that you know were sustainably harvested. (Sustainable means that the species can maintain a healthy population and the natural balance is not disrupted by harvesting.

Choose pets carefully: If you have a salt-water aquarium, make sure you ask where and how the animals you buy were collected. Look for the Marine Aquarium Council's Certification in pet stores to find animals that were carefully harvested and well cared for. And never release an unwanted pet into the ocean or any waterway. Organisms that don't belong can crowd out the locals and disrupt the ecosystem.

Select sea-friendly souvenirs: Steer clear of jewelry, mementos, and products made from marine animals or animal parts, including shells and-especially-coral.

When we burn fossil fuels (like oil, gas, or coal) to power our homes, businesses, and cars, we are adding the gas carbon dioxide to the air. The blanket of carbon dioxide we've been building for over a hundred years acts like a greenhouse, trapping more of the sun's heat. More heat means a warmer ocean, which is taking its toll on marine life. It also causes the ocean to become more acidic, which makes it hard for organisms like corals and clams to build their skeletons and shells. You can help slow global warming and ocean acidification by reducing your "carbon footprint"-the amount of carbon dioxide released as you go about your daily activities.

A trip to the beach or out on the water to snorkel or fish is a great way to learn more about the ocean and celebrate all it does for us. But when you visit, make sure you are not causing harm. Remember that every terrain is important to marine life-and to us!

On the sand: When walking on sand dunes, be careful of any grasses and plants growing there. Living plants help hold sand in place. Dead plants and seaweed provide fertilizer. Both should be left alone.

In the shallows: On rocky shores, the shallow "tidepools" that are exposed when the tide is out, can be a great place to look for interesting marine life. But be careful not to trample on these fragile critters and their homes. Look, but don't touch.

Near the reef: When snorkeling or diving, never touch the reef! Corals and other animals are fragile and easily killed by a grasping hand or careless flipper. Also never feed or handle marine animals.

In open water: When boating, be very careful where you anchor. Anchors can scar reefs and rip out seagrass beds, which provide food and shelter for many species. Where permanent anchoring buoys are provided, use them.

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The threats faced by our ocean planet may seem overwhelming. In the face of pollution, climate change, overfishing, and other daunting problems, what you can do on your own may seem like a drop in the bucket. But if we begin working together now, we can make a huge difference.

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The Truth Behind (and fun facts) about Finding Nemo

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The Truth Behind (and fun facts) about Finding Nemo

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Although we now recognize 2003's Finding Nemo as one of Pixar's most critically and commercially successful films, the underwater masterpiece didn't exactly kick off production as a guaranteed goldmine. Here are a few little-known facts about the rocky road leading up to the film's status as a bona fide blockbuster.

1. THE FILM WAS INSPIRED BY THE DIRECTOR'S OVERPROTECTIVE NATURE.

"Autobiographical" isn't exactly the first adjective you'd expect to assign to a road comedy about marine life, but Finding Nemo co-writer-director Andrew Stanton's story came from a very personal place. As a relatively new father during the film's development, Stanton found himself at odds with his proclivity to veer into overprotective territory, much in the way viewers see Marlin combating his neuroses in raising his son Nemo. He also had a love for all things aquatic that dated back to a childhood fascination with his dentist's fish tank, so Stanton used this lifelong interest as a funnel for a deeply emotional story about the challenges of being a good father.

2. STANTON WROTE A SCRIPT LONG BEFORE HE WAS "SUPPOSED TO."

Pixar's multitiered film production process begins with a basic premise pitch to the creative higher-ups, followed by (for all greenlit projects) a written story treatment. Stanton already had a script completed before this second step took place, the only Pixar project to proceed in this manner.

3. IT TOOK ONLY ONE WORD TO GET THE GREEN LIGHT FOR FINDING NEMO.

"You had me at 'fish.'" That is precisely what John Lasseter, Pixar's chief creative officer, said to Stanton following his exhaustive pitch for his passion project.

4. THE MOVIE'S ART TEAM WENT THROUGH MARINE TRAINING PRIOR TO PRODUCTION.

In order to get the look and the feel of Finding Nemo's characters and atmosphere just right, Pixar's in-house art team was required to take courses and audit lectures in marine biology, oceanography, and ichthyology while enrolling in scuba diving classes.

5. DOGS WERE USED AS MODELS FOR THE FISHY FACIAL EXPRESSIONS.

While the Pixar team's extensive research on the denizens of the deep yielded a wide variety of spectacular shapes and colors perfectly suited to an animated feature, the underwater populace proved consistently lacking when it came to one anatomical component. The dull eyes of the average finned critter weren't especially conducive to building expressive characters, so Pixar had to look elsewhere for its optical models. The crew chose one of the most openly expressive members of the animal kingdom on which to model the eyes of its fish characters: dogs.

6. THE ORIGINAL SCRIPT HAD A DIFFERENT TREATMENT FOR THE BARRACUDA INCIDENT.

At first, Stanton kept the inspiration for Marlin's overprotective attitude-the loss of his wife and all but one of their unborn children in a barracuda attack-a secret to reveal gradually through intermittent flashback sequences. Ultimately, this technique made the revelation obvious and anticlimactic while making Marlin feel substantially less likable, so the script changed.

7. GILL WAS A VILLAINOUS CHARACTER IN AN EARLIER VERSION OF THE STORY.

While the combination of somber coloration, a scowling beak, and the menacing vocals of Willem Dafoe render Nemo's fish tank pal Gill an intimidating presence, we learn soon enough that he is in fact a good guy who has the best interests of his fellow captives at heart. The original cut of Finding Nemo was more ambiguous about Gill's integrity, however, making him the owner of a falsified identity that he swiped from a nautical-themed children's book housed in the dentist's waiting room.

8. MEGAN MULLALLY WAS FIRED AFTER PRODUCERS HEARD HER REAL VOICE.

In the early 2000s, Megan Mullally was best known for her Will & Grace character, the rude and eccentric Karen Walker. Chief among the character's recognizable characteristics was her high-pitched voice, which Pixar producers apparently thought would be perfect for an animated fish. Upon hiring Mullally to voice an undisclosed character in the movie, the crew discovered that the actress' natural voice was of average pitch and that Mullally was unwilling to reproduce "the Karen voice" for the film. As such, Mullally was dismissed from the Finding Nemo cast.

9. ALBERT BROOKS REPLACED ANOTHER BIG STAR.

Although Brooks' background in films like Broadcast News and Mother seems like it would have made him an obvious candidate to play the high-strung Marlin, the first actor cast in the role was William H. Macy. The Fargo star recorded his dialogue for an early screening of Finding Nemo, but producers ultimately felt that he lacked the warmth required for the role of the father fish.

10. THE DIRECTOR RECORDED ALL OF ONE CHARACTER'S DIALOGUE WHILE LYING ON A COUCH.

Stanton never intended to commit his voice to the final cut of Finding Nemo, but only to sub in as a placeholder until the right actor could be cast to play Crush, the easygoing sea turtle with the California accent. Perhaps due to his understanding of his vocal contribution as merely temporary (or maybe, in fact, to get into the "slacker" mindset of his character), Stanton recorded all of Crush's dialogue while lying on a couch in the office of his co-director, Lee Unkrich.

11. THE CEO OF DISNEY THOUGHT FINDING NEMO WOULD BE A FAILURE.

The combination of a poorly cast Marlin, an unsympathetic Gill, and the running flashbacks made the earliest versions of Finding Nemo feel pretty dismal. Still, nobody was quite as defeatist as Michael Eisner, the Walt Disney Company's then-chief executive officer. Eisner predicted the underwater adventure would be a "reality check" for the yet unchallenged Pixar. Eisner's only positive spin was that a commercial struggle would be helpful during contract renegotiations with the Disney subsidiary. Of course, Eisner's judgment, and fund-cutting aspirations, came up short when Finding Nemo became Pixar's highest grossing film (a superlative it would maintain until the release of Toy Story 3 in 2010).

12. THE MOVIE'S POPULARITY LED TO POPULATIONSTRESS FOR CLOWNFISH.

Children were so taken with the adorable Nemo following the release of the film that demand for clownfish as pets instantly skyrocketed. Excessive capture and sale of the ocean dwellers led to a steep decline in the organic population of the species; some natural habitats, such as the waters surrounding Vanuatu, saw a 75 percent drop in clownfish numbers.

13. THE MOVIE ALSO LED TO SOME MISGUIDED FISH LIBERATION MOVEMENTS.

On the other hand, Finding Nemo's anti-tank agenda did provoke a few ecologically-minded viewers to set their aquatic captives free. Unfortunately, not everyone took the necessary steps to ensure that their newly liberated pet fish were being transported to amenable waters. Certain marine communities suffered from the introduction of predatory and venomous species in unnatural locales, resulting in, once again, ecological imbalance.

14. SEVERAL ORGANIZATIONS RELEASED "ANTI-FLUSHING" PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENTS FOLLOWING FINDING NEMO.

While tanked fish Gill's proclamation that "all drains lead to the ocean" contains a grain of truth, the movie fails to acknowledge the fact that a flushed fish is unlikely to survive a trip down the typical drain. Water treatment company JWC Environmental and Australia's Marine Aquarium Council were among those to offer public warnings that flushing would prove fatal to any pet fish. The former organization suggested that a movie that realistically portrayed a household sea creature's voyage through the municipal sewage system would be more accurately titled "Grinding Nemo."

15. A CHILDREN'S BOOK AUTHOR UNSUCCESSFULLY ACCUSED FINDING NEMO'S CREATORS OF PLAGIARISM.

A year before the release of Finding Nemo, French author Franck Le Calvez self-published the children's book Pierrot Le Poisson-Clown, featuring a young clownfish on a quest to reunite with his estranged mother. (In fact, Le Calvez first wrote the story as a screenplay in 1995, but was unable to generate interest in the concept.) After Pixar's admittedly similar tale hit theaters, Le Calvez sued the studio for copyright infringement, but lost two lawsuits and was ordered to pay $80,000 in damages and court costs.
All images courtesy of Disney Screencaps

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Although we now recognize 2003's Finding Nemo as one of Pixar's most critically and commercially successful films, the underwater masterpiece didn't exactly kick off production as a guaranteed goldmine. Here are a few little-known facts about the rocky road leading up to the film's status as a bona fide blockbuster.

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How we can help save the creatures

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Reduce the effects of climate change on the ocean by leaving the car at home when you can and being conscious of your energy use at home and work. A few things you can do to get started today: Switch to compact fluorescent light bulbs, take the stairs, and bundle up or use a fan to avoid oversetting your thermostat.

Global fish populations are rapidly being depleted due to demand, loss of habitat, and unsustainable fishing practices. When shopping or dining out, help reduce the demand for overexploited species by choosing seafood that is both healthful and sustainable.

3. Use Fewer Plastic Products

Plastics that end up as ocean debris contribute to habitat destruction and entangle and kill tens of thousands of marine animals each year. To limit your impact, carry a reusable water bottle, store food in nondisposable containers, bring your own cloth tote or other reusable bag when shopping, and recycle whenever possible.

4. Help Take Care of the Beach

Whether you enjoy diving, surfing, or relaxing on the beach, always clean up after yourself. Explore and appreciate the ocean without interfering with wildlife or removing rocks and coral. Go even further by encouraging others to respect the marine environment or by participating in local beach cleanups.

5. Don't Purchase Items That Exploit Marine Life

Certain products contribute to the harming of fragile coral reefs and marine populations. Avoid purchasing items such as coral jewelry, tortoiseshell hair accessories (made from hawksbill turtles), and shark products.

6. Be an Ocean-Friendly Pet Owner

Read pet food labels and consider seafood sustainability when choosing a diet for your pet. Never flush cat litter, which can contain pathogens harmful to marine life. Avoid stocking your aquarium with wild-caught saltwater fish, and never release any aquarium fish into the ocean or other bodies of water, a practice that can introduce non-native species harmful to the existing ecosystem.

7. Support Organizations Working to Protect the Ocean

Many institutes and organizations are fighting to protect ocean habitats and marine wildlife. Find a national organization and consider giving financial support or volunteering for hands-on work or advocacy. If you live near the coast, join up with a local branch or group and get involved in projects close to home.

8. Influence Change in Your Community

Research the ocean policies of public officials before you vote or contact your local representatives to let them know you support marine conservation projects. Consider patronizing restaurants and grocery stores that offer only sustainable seafood, and speak up about your concerns if you spot a threatened species on the menu or at the seafood counter.

9. Travel the Ocean Responsibly

Practice responsible boating, kayaking, and other recreational activities on the water. Never throw anything overboard, and be aware of marine life in the waters around you. If you're set on taking a cruise for your next vacation, do some research to find the most eco-friendly option.

10. Educate Yourself About Oceans and Marine Life

All life on Earth is connected to the ocean and its inhabitants. The more you learn about the issues facing this vital system, the more you'll want to help ensure its health-then share that knowledge to educate and inspire others.

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Reduce the effects of climate change on the ocean by leaving the car at home when you can and being conscious of your energy use at home and work. A few things you can do to get started today: Switch to compact fluorescent light bulbs, take the stairs, and bundle up or use a fan to avoid oversetting your thermostat.

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New research addresses a possible plant/animal species that kills prey

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The following essay is reprinted with permission from The Conversation, an online publication covering the latest research.
Have you ever wondered where the foam in the ocean comes from? Or why the sea can look clear on some days and green, brown, or even pink on others? And how fish get the ingredients to make those omega-fatty acids that we're told are so good for us? Well, the single word answer to all of these questions is: "plankton".

Plankton are organisms that inhabit all water bodies-from lakes and ponds to oceans. The word plankton is derived from a Greek word-πλαγκτς (planktos)-meaning "I drift", and so while plankton can move between deeper waters and the surface and vice versa, they cannot swim against the current. So sometimes we have vast numbers of planktonic jellyfish, fantastic swimmers within the water columns but helpless against the tide, stranded on our beaches. In size, plankton range from microscopic, single-celled organisms to multi-celled animals such as krills, jellyfish, crab larvae and juvenile fish.

We often think of the sea as being dominated by fish and whales. But microscopic, single-celled plankton are, in fact, the main drivers of life in Earth's oceans. But how well do we really understand them?

For decades, the accepted view has been that these single-celled microscopic plankton can be divided broadly into two types. Food producing " phytoplankton" (also known as microalgae) are like tiny marine plants. " Microzooplankton ", on the other hand, eat the phytoplankton and are in turn eaten by bigger zooplankton, such as krills.

This division of microscopic plankton is akin to the plant-animal split in terrestrial ecosystems. However we now know that, beneath the waves, there is another microscopic plankton group-"mixotrophs" that combine features of "plant-like" phytoplankton and "animal-like" microzooplankton. And their mode of feeding is, but for their microscopic scale, the stuff of horror stories.

They are like miniature triffids, which can engulf living prey, suck out their innards, poison them, harpoon them, make them explode, and steal and reuse body parts. They can kill whole ecosystems in a matter of hours and alter the colour of the water-and yet they also shape the Earth's atmosphere and support the growth of larval fish at critical stages of their life cycle.

For decades, these mixotrophs have been considered to be freaks of nature, prospering only when phytoplankton and microzooplankton are disadvantaged. Over the past five years, however, through a project funded by the Leverhulme Trust, we have established that the mixotrophs are far from freaks; indeed, mixotrophy is the norm rather than the exception.

This has major implications-it means that the base of the oceanic food web doesn't follow the traditional "plant-animal" pattern. Instead, it is dominated by the activities of the single-celled mixotrophs, microscopic "triffids" which can photosynthesise like plants and eat like animals-all within the one cell.

A new type of life?

Based on our findings, we have proposed a new model for life in our oceans, arguing that the traditional split between the "plant-like" phytoplankton (microalgae) and the "animal-like" microzooplankton used to describe the oceanic food-web is no longer tenable. This model could overturn a century's worth of our understanding of marine biology.

Indeed, mixotrophs have the potential to impact all of our lives, not least because they are major contributors to the food webs that support fisheries. This is especially true for the healthy growth of very young fish, which depend on them for food during the summer months.

Just like the triffids of John Wyndham's classic sci-fi novel, however, mixotrophs can be dangerous, too-and to more than just other microplankton. The release of nitrates and organic nutrients, such as raw sewage or silage slurry, into coastal waters contributes to an imbalance of nutrient loads, which causes mixotrophs to produce toxins and mucus. The toxins can kill fish and close shell-fisheries. Muddy-coloured foam in estuaries during summer is the result of plankton secreting excess mucus-and this mucus can clog the gills of fish, effectively drowning them.

Mathematical models are used widely to aid environmental management, to study fisheries and to investigate the impacts of fishing and climate change on them. But such models do not take into account the presence and activities of the mixotrophs that we now realise comprise more than half of all microscopic plankton.

And this could result in serious flaws. We have shown that marine food web and climate change models that don't include mixotrophs could be giving questionable results. Indeed, based on our modelling studies, we suggest that we start to take mixotrophs more seriously and include their remarkable impacts in mathematical models used to predict climate change and aid environmental management. They may be microscopic, but we ignore these little triffids at our peril.
This article was originally published on The Conversation. Read the original article.

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Strange Hybrid Killers, Growing Like Plants and Eating Like Animals, Rule the Oceans

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The following essay is reprinted with permission from The Conversation, an online publication covering the latest research. Have you ever wondered where the foam in the ocean comes from? Or why the sea can look clear on some days and green, brown, or even pink on others?

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Learn about whale feeding habits

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Whale diets

Have you ever wondered what the world's largest mammals eat? As it turns out, most whales don't eat large prey. Most whales, and in particular the baleen whales, feed on some of the smallest animals in the ocean. They feed on small plankton and krill which drift with the nutrient rich waters where the whales live.

Not all whales feed on plankton however. Sperm whales, for instance, feed on animals like giant squid in the deep waters of the ocean. Some orca whales feed on salmon, and others feed on marine mammals like sea otters and sea lions.

More Video of Whale Diets

More links to learn about what whales eat

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Whale diets Have you ever wondered what the world's largest mammals eat? As it turns out, most whales don't eat large prey. Most whales, and in particular the baleen whales, feed on some of the smallest animals in the ocean. They feed on small plankton and krill which drift with the nutrient rich waters ...

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Why overfishing is a problem

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Ocean overfishing is simply the taking of wildlife from the sea at rates too high for fished species to replace themselves. The earliest overfishing occurred in the early 1800s when humans, seeking blubber for lamp oil, decimated the whale population. Some fish that we eat, including Atlantic cod and herring and California's sardines, were also harvested to the brink of extinction by the mid-1900s.

Highly disruptive to the food chain, these isolated, regional depletions became global and catastrophic by the late 20th century.

When It Started

Marine scientists know when widespread overfishing of the seas began. And they have a pretty good idea when, if left unaddressed, it will end.

In the mid-20th century, international efforts to increase the availability and affordability of protein-rich foods led to concerted government efforts to increase fishing capacity. Favorable policies, loans, and subsidies spawned a rapid rise of big industrial fishing operations, which quickly supplanted local boatmen as the world's source of seafood.

These large, profit-seeking commercial fleets were extremely aggressive, scouring the world's oceans and developing ever more sophisticated methods and technologies for finding, extracting, and processing their target species. Consumers soon grew accustomed to having access to a wide selection of fish species at affordable prices.

But by 1989, when about 90 million tons (metric tons) of catch were taken from the ocean, the industry had hit its high-water mark, and yields have declined or stagnated ever since. Fisheries for the most sought-after species, like orange roughy, Chilean sea bass, and bluefin tuna have collapsed. In 2003, a scientific report estimated that industrial fishing had reduced the number of large ocean fish to just 10 percent of their pre-industrial population.

When It Will End

Faced with the collapse of large-fish populations, commercial fleets are going deeper in the ocean and father down the food chain for viable catches. This so-called "fishing down" is triggering a chain reaction that is upsetting the ancient and delicate balance of the sea's biologic system.

A study of catch data published in 2006 in the journal Science grimly predicted that if fishing rates continue apace, all the world's fisheries will have collapsed by the year 2048.

What's Next?

Over the past 55 years, as fisheries have returned lower and lower yields, humans have begun to understand that the oceans we'd assumed were unendingly vast and rich are in fact highly vulnerable and sensitive. Add overfishing to pollution, climate change, habitat destruction, and acidification, and a picture of a system in crisis emerges.

Many scientists say most fish populations could be restored with aggressive fisheries management, better enforcement of laws governing catches, and increased use of aquaculture. And in many regions, there is reason for hope. But illegal fishing and unsustainable harvesting still plagues the industry. And a public grown accustomed to abundant seafood and largely apathetic about the plight of the oceans complicates efforts to repair the damage we've done.

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Ocean overfishing is simply the taking of wildlife from the sea at rates too high for fished species to replace themselves. The earliest overfishing occurred in the early 1800s when humans, seeking blubber for lamp oil, decimated the whale population.

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News report about getting serious with overfishing

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EVEN the names at Sutton Harbour give it away. While the pleasure boats, including Windfall and Felicity, gleam in the sunshine, the light warms rust on the decks of craft such as Pisces. The fishing industry is struggling to stay afloat in Plymouth, a port in Devon. Locals grumble about regulation, fuel costs and the dearth of crew. Revenues are stagnant and the facilities ageing. But if times are tough for the fishers, they may be tougher for the fish.

The world currently consumes more fish per person than ever before-about 20 kilos a year. But almost all the recent gains in production have been down to farmed fish. Aquaculture has grown remarkably in the past decades, especially in China; in 2014 it accounted for half of all the fish people ate. But that does not mean that the pressure on the open seas has eased.
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In 2013, the most recent year for which full data are available, 32% of the world's fish stocks were being exploited beyond their sustainable limit, up from 10% in the 1970s, according to the UN's Food and Agriculture Organisation. The amount of fish caught at sea has been pretty much flat for the past three decades, but the share of the world's fish stocks that are being plundered unsustainably has continued to increase (see chart 1).

Overfishing is not the only problem. Pollution, notably fertiliser run-off, damages a lot of marine ecosystems. There are estimated to be 5trn bits of plastic in the ocean, with over 8m tonnes of the stuff added every year. By the middle of the century the sea could contain more plastic than fish by weight, according to research done for the Ellen MacArthur Foundation.

Not all the harm comes directly from the land; some comes via the sky. Carbon dioxide accumulating in the atmosphere has so far raised the world's average sea-surface temperature by about 0.7ºC. This has effects at depth; when seas warm up they become more stratified, making it harder for nutrients in the waters below to rise to where they are most needed by fish and plankton. Given this, it might seem fortunate that the ocean absorbs a fair bit of that carbon dioxide, thus reducing the warming. But doing so changes the ocean's chemistry, making it more acidic. This is a particular problem for creatures with calcium-carbonate shells-which includes not just crabs and oysters but quite a lot of larvae, too. Acidification makes carbonates more likely to dissolve.

It is hard to grasp the scale of such planetary changes, and impossible to say how much damage they will do. That is the way of things with the ocean; it is vast and human horizons are close. That something so immense could be put at risk just by people leading their daily lives seems inconceivable. But as with the atmosphere and the surface of the continents-where humans now move more sediments than the natural processes of erosion-the fact that something is vast does not mean humans cannot have profound impacts on it.

For the sake of the hundreds of millions of people who depend on the ocean for livelihoods or sustenance, as well as for the sake of the ocean itself, these human impacts need to be reined in. There are signs that, where fishing is concerned, this may be coming about, not least because monitoring what goes on over the horizon is becoming ever easier. But there is a great deal left to do.

Losing Nemo

Overfishing is bad for fish; it is also, in the long run, bad for those seeking to catch them. The goal of sound management is to have a stock that is harvested at the same rate that it replenishes itself-which might typically be a stock about half the size of what would be there if there were no fishing at all. If fishers take more than this "maximum sustainable yield"-as they do in many fisheries today-then in the long run they will get less out of the resource than they could, quite possibly imperilling its future. If stocks were allowed to rise back up far enough for the world's fisheries to reach their maximum sustainable yield, the industry would increase production by 16.5m tonnes-about a fifth of the current total-and bring in an extra $32bn a year.

Good management could in principle get the stocks back up through the use of quotas, property rights and other constraints on untrammelled exploitation. Quotas and similar controls have worked well in some cases. In American waters 16% of stocks were overfished in 2015, down from 25% in 2000. But they have drawbacks. Because they want to land the largest fish they can find, fishers throw back undersized specimens, which often die as a result. And because fish mix, species caught by accident are thrown back if a fisher has no quota for them.

Quotas are also often badly set. Regulators and politicians pander too much to powerful fishing interests, according to Rainer Froese of the Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research in Kiel, Germany. Lobbies, which often benefit from the importance of fishing to specific places, push for short-term profit over long-term sustainability. "They harvest the apples by cutting the tree branches," says Mr Froese.

The problem is exacerbated by a lack of evidence, which makes overly permissive quota-setting easier. More investment in research and monitoring could help. But in developing countries, where the need is often dire, there are frequently no resources to meet that need, and in many rich countries fishing is not a big enough industry to make such research a national priority. "We are not good value for the taxpayer, but how can you have an island nation without a fishing fleet?" asks Pete Bromley, a former fisherman who is now master of Sutton Harbour.

Aquaculture boosters might answer that fleets are simply no longer needed. But farmed fish, particularly salmon and their ilk, are fed on smaller fish that themselves are caught at sea. Insects or algae might provide alternative fodder, but the companies involved are slow to embrace such novelties, according to Ari Jadwin of AquaSelect, which provides advice to Chinese fish farms. One issue, he says, is that Chinese consumers are not moved by sustainability arguments. But he thinks that concerns over food safety will lead to better practices in the long run.

Those struggling to make money from early mornings in stormy seas worry more about business in the next year than in the next fifty. "Climate change isn't happening next month. At the moment we've got to hang on to what we've got," says Mr Bromley. But worrying trends are already visible. As equatorial seas warm up, many plankton species are extending their range towards the poles by hundreds of kilometres a decade; where they lead, fish will follow.

Moving somewhere cooler might seem a simple thing; but temperature is not all that matters to fish, and so there can be trade-offs involved. The flounders off the coast of Britain like water that is both relatively shallow and fairly cool, says Martin Genner from the University of Bristol. With water temperatures around the south of the country 1.5ºC higher than they used to be, the flounders have headed north-but there the waters are deeper, which suits them less well. Fish may also need particular types of food at particular times in their life cycles, such as when their larvae hatch. If predators and prey respond to warming by heading to different places, or by speeding up or slowing down their breeding at different paces, such needs will go unmet. But how much, and where, food webs will be thus disrupted is hard to say. Few of the models seeking to predict how climate change will affect fish consider ecological interactions between species.

Fixed assets

Not everything in the sea can move to waters new with the flick of a fin. Coral reefs, for example, are rather stuck. Although they cover less than a thousandth of the world's sea floors, they support a quarter of known marine species-and through them millions of people who rely on fishing and tourism for their livelihoods. As oceans warm, corals risk "bleaching"-losing their colourful algal symbionts-because the algae involved can only survive in a slim range of temperatures. Without their algae, which photosynthesise, the corals lose their source of energy.

There have been three global bleaching episodes since 1998, worsened by El Niño events that heat up the tropical Pacific. The one that started in 2014, and is still going on, has been the longest and most damaging; more than 70% of the world's coral reefs have been harmed by it. Australia's Great Barrier Reef, worth $4.6bn each year to nearby Queensland alone, has been particularly badly affected. "Five or ten years ago, most of the discussion about coral reefs was over how they would look by the end of century," says Rusty Brainard, a coral expert at America's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Now the talk is of whether coral reefs will survive as we know them to 2050 or even 2030."

Acidification makes the picture worse. Though it is hard to distinguish the effects of chemistry from the other problems that beset reefs, it seems a fair bet that an environment where calcium carbonate is more likely to dissolve will not be good for them. A study published last year by researchers at the Carnegie Institution for Science made the point clearly by running de-acidified water over a reef; the corals perked up nicely. Doing the same for all the world's reefs, though, is hardly an option.

Faced with chronic problems and hard-to-quantify future crises, the sea's resources need to be looked after better by all those-countries, consumers, companies and fishers-with a stake in their survival.

Much of that needs to be done in national jurisdictions. Though overfishing means that many fleets now head farther from home than before, about 90% of the catch is from the "exclusive economic zones" (EEZs) that countries are entitled to claim out to as far as 200 nautical miles (370km) from their shores. What counts as a shore, and a claim, though, can be disputed: China's assertion of fishing rights in the South China Sea, which contains a tenth of the global fish catch, sets its neighbours on edge (though it is hardly the only thing that does). Russia, America and other Arctic states argue over new access to fish stocks in the melting north.

Though what goes on in EEZs is largely a sovereign matter, there are some levers available to outsiders. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) hopes to introduce new rules on fishing subsidies at its next ministerial jamboree in December. These come to $30bn a year, with seven in every ten dollars handed out by comfortably-off countries. The WTO first started discussions on fishing subsidies back in 2001; Pascal Lamy, formerly its director-general, says a great deal of effort has gone into working out which subsidies are contributing to harmful fishing practices. The reckoning now is about 60% of them do so.

China, which gets far more fish from its EEZ than any other country does from theirs (as well as fishing, by agreement, the EEZs of other countries), seems open to action on subsidies if some unrelated anti-dumping measures are loosened. But how to bring poor countries on board remains a thorny issue. Although coastal African states want change, many inland ones fret over the higher cost of fish. "The whole point is to make fish more expensive," explains Mr Lamy, "so as to internalise the cost of environmental depletion." Sensible stewardship, but not necessarily an easy sell in countries where fish from elsewhere are a cheap source of protein for the poor.

Establishing more protected areas both within EEZs and on the high seas beyond would be another way to help, particularly if they were to contain "no-take" zones where fishing is completely barred. Such zones provide breathing spaces, or breeding spaces, in which stocks can recover. Crow White from California Polytechnic State University and Christopher Costello from the University of California, Santa Barbara have calculated that if such an approach was taken to its extreme and the high seas were closed to fishing, then yields elsewhere could rise by 30%, with fisheries' profits doubling because fish closer to shore become cheaper to catch.

The countries that dominate fishing in international waters (see chart 2) would never stomach such a ban; they prefer the often inadequate regulation offered by regional fisheries-management organisations. But even in these regimes, temporary and rolling closures have been tested. In the Antarctic permanent ones have proved successful.

Spotting boats that misbehave on the high seas (or indeed in EEZs) is getting easier. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) requires ships over 300 tonnes to have an Automatic Identification System (AIS), a radio transmitter which tells anyone in the vicinity the boat's position, speed and identity so as to avoid collisions. "In the vicinity", though, now includes "up above"; various satellites can use AIS transmissions to track ships. Spire, an American startup, is building up a constellation of tiny spacecraft with which it hopes to log 10m AIS transmissions every day by the end of this year.

Global Fishing Watch, an online platform created by Google, Oceana, a marine charity, and Sky Truth, which uses satellite data to further environmental causes, is a keen user of AIS transmissions. They do not just let it locate fishing vessels; they let it take a good guess as to what they are doing (boats long-lining for tuna, for example, zigzag distinctively). The platform currently follows 60,000 vessels responsible for 50-60% of the world's catch, according to Brian Sullivan from Google. Indonesia is planning to use the platform to make public data that it gathers through "vessel monitoring systems"-information which can reveal more about what is actually happening on-board than AIS location data do, and as a result is often jealously guarded. The more other countries follow suit, the better the picture will be.

The Port State Measures Agreement, which came into force in 2016, means that if such monitoring leads a country to suspect that a foreign vessel is doing something dodgy, it does not have to go out and inspect it in order to take action. The agreement's clever construction means that poor countries without much by way of navy or coastguard can deny a suspicious foreign vessel entry to their ports and pass its details on to other countries that might have the wherewithal to check it out.

Big ocean, big impact

Companies can act, as well as countries. Food suppliers and retailers such as Costco, Sodexo and Walmart are trying to combat poor fishing practices through a body called the Seafood Task Force. The idea is to ensure that supply chains are what they purport to be and that labour conditions in the industry are up to snuff with an eye to fixing problems before they become scandals. And insurers are interested in the sort of monitoring Global Fishing Watch does: ships that turn their AIS off increase the risk of collisions; they may attract bigger premiums or have their policies revoked.

Investors currently have little information on how their choice of investment affects marine life. Fish Tracker, a not-for-profit firm, aims to put that right. It is looking at the risks posed by unsustainable fishing in the same way that climate activists have studied the risks of fossil-fuel investments in order to warn off investors. Mark Campanale, the initiative's founder, says that at the most basic level investors need to understand that if one boat catches one fish, ten boats will not catch ten. To that end the outfit is analysing information covering 300 fishing companies with a market capitalisation of $530bn to calculate the unacknowledged downsides imposed by environmental limits.

None of this can drive change effectively, though, without the support of fishers. Including them in the design of regulatory regimes can bolster scientific analysis and reduce political tensions; by bringing them into the process it also deepens their understanding of sustainable practice. "It would be unacceptable for farmers to go through an educational system without understanding crop yields and the need to manage the land for future generations," says Jim Masters of Fishing into the Future, a charity. "But there are no equivalent opportunities for fishermen." For the sake of the fish, there should be.

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EVEN the names at Sutton Harbour give it away. While the pleasure boats, including Windfall and Felicity, gleam in the sunshine, the light warms rust on the decks of craft such as Pisces. The fishing industry is struggling to stay afloat in Plymouth, a port in Devon.

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New policies and things we can do to help marine life

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COOL

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These Amazing Marine Biology Facts Will Make You Go Wow

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Marine biology is the study of various organisms living in the oceans. Let's dive deep into the world of these oceans, and have a look at some interesting facts about marine biology.

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How it effects marine life

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More problems if the AMOC slows down

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Take a look at the map below. Direct from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), it shows the blended land and sea surface temperatures (in °C) for the months of December 2014 through February 2015 (the warmest winter on record ).

Notice anything odd in the colors up there? Most areas are trending upwards, heat-wise, except for a spot in the upper Atlantic that is at its record coldest. If you consult various heat trend maps from NASA or NOAA, you will see this spot appear again and again.

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

Scientists hypothesize that fluctuations in the AMOC have contributed to major climate shifts throughout history. Unfortunately, direct evidence for this is lacking due to various technical and natural factors, but those fluctuations have been linked to significant and troubling sea level rise.

How Does the AMOC Affect Sea Level Rise?

The event caused "persistent and widespread coastal flooding even without apparent weather processes," resulting in beach erosion "almost as significant as some hurricane events." This phenomenon has been linked to a fluctuation in atmospheric pressure combined with a slowdown in the AMOC (which also spurred severe hurricane and winter conditions in northwestern Europe).

"If the overturning circulation slows down further," he said, "these extreme sea-level events on the East Coast will become more frequent."

Why Is the AMOC Cooling Down?

Greenland is melting.

Last year, satellite data from the European Space Agency's CryoSat mission revealed that both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are melting at an " unprecedented rate ." A published in the journal Nature Climate Change suggests this influx of cold water is affecting the slowdown in the AMOC.

Like most climate systems, the AMOC is subject to variability over time. Between 1970 and 1990, the current experienced a sharp slowdown followed by a partial recovery. However, it has failed to recover to its pre-Industrial Revolution levels, suggesting that man-made greenhouse gas emissions and the resulting warming of the globe have made an impact. And while the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted the AMOC's slowdown, the heavy influx of cold Greenland meltwater is believed to be exacerbating the condition ahead of schedule.

Using data gathered from ice cores, tree rings and coral samples, the research team (led by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in Germany) posits that weakness in the AMOC after 1975 "is an unprecedented event in the past millennium."

Planet Expert Michael Mann co-authored the study and told ClimateCentral that a "full-on collapse" of the AMOC could be possible in the coming decades.

The exact consequences will be difficult to predict, but it will definitely have an impact on marine life, which benefits from the nutrients the AMOC delivers up from the ocean depths. "The most productive region, in terms of availability of nutrients, is the high latitudes of the North Atlantic," said Mann. "If we lose that, that's a fundamental threat to our ability to continue to fish."

"If you shut down this mode of ocean circulation, you're denying the climate system one of its modes of heat transport," said Mann. "if you deny it one mode of transport, it's often the case that you will see other modes of transport increase."

Why Should We Be Worried?

However, disrupting the AMOC with cold water will have a serious if unpredictable impact on our climate. As Al Gore pointed out in his film, An Inconvenient Truth, the last time the ocean's "heat conveyor belt" was doused with a massive volume of frigid water, it prompted a 900 to 1,000 year ice age in Europe in the span of 10 years.

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The Ocean's Conveyor Belt Is Slowing Down: What You Need to Know About AMOC, Greenland and 'Unprecedented' Sea Level Rise - Planet Experts

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Take a look at the map below. Direct from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), it shows the blended land and sea surface temperatures (in °C) for the months of December 2014 through February 2015 (the warmest winter on record). Notice anything odd in the colors up there?

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What are the problems that will happen if AMOC slows down?

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How Climate Change Could Jam The World’s Ocean Circulation

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Scientists are closely monitoring a key current in the North Atlantic to see if rising sea temperatures and increased freshwater from melting ice are altering the “ocean conveyor belt” — a vast oceanic stream that plays a major role in the global climate system.

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What is AMOC? (MS.V's REQUEST)

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What is the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation?

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The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a large system of ocean currents that carry warm water from the tropics northwards into the North Atlantic.

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How dolphins swim

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Dolphin Facts | Dolphin Information | Dolphin Species | Dolphins FAQ

Dolphins have evolved and adapted to become as streamlined as possible. They have very little hair to create friction and their skin is extremely smooth to create as little resistance in the water as possible. It's all about aerodynamics. They have no external appendages to restrict movement or to disrupt the flow of water over their bodies. They do not have ears which stick out, their faces taper to a point in order to part the water in all directions to flow smoothly in round the dolphin itself. But all of these things only help the dolphin to swim faster, they don't propel it forward in the first place.

Dolphins have incredibly strong muscles in their tails which they use to move the whole body up and down in a smooth motion. This movement in the water causes the dolphin to move forward. This is another key difference between dolphins and fish. Fish move their bodies from side to side as they swim, whereas with dolphins, all of the movement is up and downwards motion. The faster the dolphin moves its tail up and down, the faster it will propel itself through the water. The tail fluke is used to control the direction of the water, and dolphins can reposition this and tilt their heads up in order to swim towards the surface of the water, or tilt their heads down to dive further into the sea.

They have a high fat content which makes them very buoyant so they don't find it at all difficult to float to the surface. This helps them get to the surface quickly if they begin to run out of air.

They use the flippers on each side for steering and do not use them for propelling themselves through the water at all. The flippers are also sometimes used as brakes if the dolphin needs to slow down quickly. The dorsal fin located in the middle of their back works as a stabilizer, keeping them upright so that they don't barrel roll by accident.

The tail and flippers are used in conjunction with one another when it comes to breaching, flipping and jumping. As the dolphin moves closer to the surface of the water, powerful flicks of the tail give it enough force to leap into the air and the flippers are then used to help direct themselves into flips and turns.

Dolphin Facts | Dolphin Information | Dolphin Species | Dolphins FAQ

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Dolphin Facts | Dolphin Information | Dolphin Species | Dolphins FAQ Dolphins have evolved and adapted to become as streamlined as possible. They have very little hair to create friction and their skin is extremely smooth to create as little resistance in the water as possible. It's all about aerodynamics.

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We are most familiar with the bottle nose dolphin but their are plenty of other types of dolphins

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There is not an absolute number of extant dolphin species to date. Moreover, the studies continuously carried out on these cetaceans still find the existence of more species occasionally, either because of new discoveries or because the scientific classification of a species seems not entirely correct as result of applying new technologies like genetic research.

There is not a formal taxonomic classification of dolphins. They are an informal group formed by the 39 species of the family Delphinidae of oceanic dolphins plus the five* species of the superfamily Platanistoidea of river dolphins.

*Recently the Araguaian river dolphin was split from the Amazon river dolphin and was added to this family, and the Baiji is functionally extinct but still considered in this list.

You should know that dolphins are mammals related to whales, but unlike them, they have teeth. Whales and dolphins are cetaceans, that is, animals, that belong to the taxonomic order Cetacea, a group of mammals fully adapted to the aquatic life. This order, in turn, is divided into two suborders: Mysticeti and Odontoceti. Whales are members of the former suborder while dolphins belong to the latter, although this classification also includes porpoises, beaked whales, and sperm whales.

The parvorder Mysticeti includes all the baleen whales, which are cetaceans that have a fibrous structure useful for filtering the food. Odontoceti has teeth, instead of those baleen plates. The curious thing is that dolphins, toothed cetaceans, do not use their teeth to tear the flesh of their prey like sharks but to hold their food and for other purposes related to their senses and communication.

+ There are 39 species of oceanic dolphins classified in 17 Genus, and five species of river dolphins classified in 4 Genus, but these numbers keep changing with new discoveries.

For practical purposes, there are around 44 species of dolphins classified in 21 Genus, but again, these figures may change with time. The image that many people have of dolphins may be a little different from reality: not all of these animals live in the sea, and not all look as the bottlenose dolphin that most people know. There are also dolphins that inhabit in freshwater rivers, although their distribution is rather small and less known. These freshwater cetaceans are also considered Dolphins even though they do not belong to the family Delphinidae of oceanic dolphins.

DOLPHIN SPECIES ACCORDING TO THEIR TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION:

Order: Cetacea
Suborder: Odontoceti

Dolphins
Family: Delphinidae

Genus: Delphinus
1- Delphinus capensis. (Long-beaked common dolphin)
2- Delphinus delphis. (Short-beaked common dolphin)
3- Delphinus tropicalis. (Arabian common dolphin)

-Genus: Tursiops
4- Tursiops truncatus. (Common bottlenose dolphin)
5- Tursiops aduncus. (Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin)
6- Tursiops australis. (Burrunan dolphin)

-Genus: Lissodelphis
7- Lissodelphis borealis. (Northern right whale dolphin)
8- Lissodelphis peronii. (Southern right whale dolphin)

-Genus: Sotalia
9- Sotalia fluviatilis. (Tucuxi)
10- Sotalia guianensis. (Guiana dolphin)

-Genus: Sousa
11- Sousa chinensis. (Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin)
Subspecies:
- Sousa chinensis chinensis. (Chinese white dolphin)
- Sousa chinensis plumbea. (Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin)
12- Sousa teuszii. (Atlantic Humpback Dolphin)
13- Sousa plumbea (Indian Humpback dolphin)

-Genus: Stenella
14- Stenella frontalis. (Atlantic spotted dolphin)
15- Stenella clymene. (Clymene dolphin)
16- Stenella attenuata. (Pantropical spotted dolphin)
17- Stenella longirostris. (Spinner dolphin)
18- Stenella coeruleoalba. (Striped dolphin)

-Genus: Steno
19- Steno bredanensis. (Rough-toothed dolphin)

-Genus: Cephalorhynchus
20- Cephalorhynchus eutropia. (Chilean dolphin)
21- Cephalorhynchus commersonii. (Commerson's dolphin)
22- Cephalorhynchus heavisidii. (Heaviside's Dolphin)
23- Cephalorhynchus hectori. (Hector's dolphin)

-Genus: Grampus
24- Grampus griseus. (Risso's dolphin)

-Genus: Lagenodelphis
25- Lagenodelphis hosei. (Fraser's dolphin)

-Genus: Lagenorhynchus
26- Lagenorhynchus acutus. (Atlantic white-sided dolphin)
27- Lagenorhynchus obscurus. (Dusky dolphin)
28- Lagenorhynchus cruciger. (Hourglass dolphin)
29- Lagenorhynchus obliquidens. (Pacific white-sided dolphin)
30- Lagenorhynchus australis. (Peale's dolphin)
31- Lagenorhynchus albirostris. (White-beaked dolphin)

-Genus: Peponocephala
32- Peponocephala electra. (Melon-headed whale)

-Genus: Orcaella
33- Orcaella heinsohni. (Australian snubfin dolphin)
34- Orcaella brevirostris. (Irrawaddy dolphin)

-Genus: Orcinus
35- Orcinus orca. (Orca- Killer Whale)

-Genus: Feresa
36- Feresa attenuata. (Pygmy killer whale)

-Genus: Pseudorca
37- Pseudorca crassidens. (False Killer whale)

-Genus: Globicephala
38- Globicephala melas. (Long-finned pilot whale)
39- Globicephala macrorhynchus. (Short-finned pilot whale)

Superfamily: Platanistoidea

-Genus Inia
Family: Iniidae
40- Inia geoffrensis. (Amazon river dolphin).
41- Inia araguaiaensis (Araguaian river dolphin).

-Genus Lipotes
Family: Lipotidae
42- Lipotes vexillifer. (Baiji)

-Genus Pontoporia
Family: Pontoporiidae
43- Pontoporia blainvillei. (La Plata dolphin)

-Genus Platanista
Family: Platanistidae
44- Platanista gangetica. (South Asian river dolphin)
Subspecies:
- Platanista gangetica gangetica. (Ganges river dolphin)
- Platanista gangetica minor. (Indus river dolphin)

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There is not an absolute number of extant dolphin species to date. Moreover, the studies continuously carried out on these cetaceans still find the existence of more species occasionally, either because of new discoveries or because the scientific classification of a species seems not entirely correct as result of applying new technologies like genetic research.

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Are the nets fisherman use safe?

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The Tuna Tracking and Verification Program (TTVP), established under the Dolphin Protection Consumer Information Act, is how NOAA Fisheries monitors compliance with dolphin-safe tuna labeling.

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All about the marine mammal you need to know

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Schools of fish and their patterns

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The minnows known as golden shiners put on displays of synchronized swimming that could impress even the toughest Olympic judge. The ability of shiners and other fishes to change direction in harmony has long intrigued scientists, who have developed several ways of describing in mathematical terms how schooling works. But those approaches tend to be simplifications that do not take into account all the real-time sensory information available to the fish.

To get a better idea of what the fish were actually doing, Princeton University biologist Iain Couzin and his colleagues devised a way to make golden shiners move en masse and on cue. The researchers taught a few fish to swim toward a green light to find food and then placed those fish in a larger school. When the light went on, the trained fish broke toward it, triggering a cascade of responses as the rest of the school fell in behind the leaders.

Couzin and his colleagues filmed the action with high-speed video that allowed the researchers to map each fish's visual field using the location and position of its head. The researchers reported in Current Biology that each fish based its decisions on where to go not on the behavior of its nearest neighbors, as is often assumed, but on a synthesis of where all the fish in its field of view were headed.

"We could pinpoint the exact moment that a fish started moving toward the light, and we found the fish were responding to the fraction of individuals they could see that had also started moving," Couzin says.

Meanwhile other researchers are working to uncover what makes some fish school in the first place. Katie Peichel, a biologist at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in Seattle, and her colleagues have found that schooling in three-spined sticklebacks depends on behaviors linked to at least two distinct groups of genes. Her group reported in Current Biology that one cluster of genes controls a fish's propensity to join others in a large group; another set of genes influences how well a fish swims in formation, parallel to its neighbors.

Together the behavioral traits and sensory abilities of schooling fish produce dazzling maneuvers that help fish avoid or defend against predators. "By grouping together, they're sensing the world in a different way," Couzin says.

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What the Fish Saw: How Swimming Fish Maintain Orderly Schools

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The minnows known as golden shiners put on displays of synchronized swimming that could impress even the toughest Olympic judge. The ability of shiners and other fishes to change direction in harmony has long intrigued scientists, who have developed several ways of describing in mathematical terms how schooling works.

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This is a general article but it features two deadly marine plants

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My name is Rob Nelson, and I've been interested in marine science my whole life. Fish were my world. However, sometime in college I remember thinking that I know nothing about plants. They became one of my newfound passions, leading me to film and document them for over 10 years now.

I can tell you that there are some amazing plants in this world. In the plant kingdom, most of us imagine passive green leafy-beings. I know I did. Not many of us think of them as invaders, murderers or traps. Yet, the plant kingdom contains just as many killers and oddities as one can find in the animal kingdom. In fact, I'd probably argue there are more. You see, plants can't move, so they only defense is in the toxins they produce. While I want to profile all different types of this world's wicked plants, I think we need to start simple. In this week's science podcast, we've started by profiling the invasive plants...

My wife and I have recently teamed up with the North Carolina Arboretum to make videos for their Wicked Plants display, which included more of the world's worst weeds. Check out the display here.

Finally, since my goal is to share some of the amazing plants of this world, I created this short list.

Top Ten Bizarre and Wicked Plants

1. The Largest Flower in the World

Rafflesia arnoldii: this parasitic plant develops the world's largest bloom that can grow over three feet across. The flower is a fleshy color, with spots that make it look like a teenager's acne-ridden skin. It smells bad and has a hole in the center that holds six or seven quarts of water. The plant has no leaves, stems, or roots.

2. The World's Worst Aquatic Weed

Hydrilla:This little plant non-native aquarium plant was first introduced into Florida in 1960 and is now considered the most problematic aquatic plant in the United States. Management costs millions of dollars each year. Hydrilla's dense mats suck out the oxygen, destroy fish populations and encourage mosquito breeding. It can sprout new plants from just small fragments containing as few as two whorls of leaves. That makes it very easy to spread. Hydrilla also prodcues turions and tubers in the soil, which can give rise to new plants after extended dormancy. In fact, one square foot plot of hydrilla can produce over 1,500 new plants!

Hydrilla is now listed by scientists as a federally noxious weed. One scientist compared it to herpes. "Once you've got it, you've got it forever." Read more about Hydrilla.

3. A Carnivorous Flytrap.

The Venus Flytrap is native to a small region around Willmington, NC. Here, on the forest floor in the sandy soils of the pine forests, these small flytraps thrive in an area poor in nitrogen. To supplement their nutrient needs, they take insects. This helps put them ahead of the competition.

4. The Largest Single Flowering Infloresence

The Titan Arum boats the largest single, unbranched infloresence. The largest flower goes to Rafflesia, and the largest infloresence actually goes to the Tallabot Palm. But, this plant takes the prize for more than it's size! It stinks! It's often been called the Corpse flower, a name that doesn't sound nearly as regal as the Titan Arum. Check out the Titan arum article we did on it after visiting a flowering one!

5. A Pot of Death

Pitcher plants grow all over the world in nitrogen rich soils. Would you be surprised to learn that they also share the habitat of the Venus fly traps? They've taken a different approach though. You see, they've actually formed into a vase, full of water to help drown their victims. While there are lots of Pitcher plants, and all of them seem to do this task slightly differently, they do share something in common. They all use animal protein to help give them an edge in their nutrient deficient habitats.

6. Corn and Vampires

You might not realize it, but if you eat a diet of nothing but corn, you may just become a vampire. Check out the video we did on it.

7. Kudzu

The Centennial Exposition, held in 1876 in Philadelphia, was a carnival of wonders. Roughly ten million Americans were introduced to the telephone, the typewriter, and a miraculous new plant from Japan: Kudzu.

Plant enthusiasts loved the flowers fruity, grapelike fragrance and the fact that the vine could scramble over a trellis so quickly and control erosion. Soon farmers realized that livestock would eat the vine, making it a good crop to feed livestock, but kudzu had other wicked plans for America. The vines made themselves at home, growing up to a foot per day during the warm summers. Over two-dozen stems can emerge from a single crown, and each of those can stretch for over one hundred feet. A single massive taproot can weigh up to four hundred pounds. Its underground rhizomes ignore the cold and survive for years before sprouting. It strangles trees, smothers meadows, undermines buildings and pulls down power lines. The vine now covers seven million acres in the US, and the damage it has caused is in the hundreds of millions. If you live in the south, you might not want to sleep with the windows open.

8. Purple Loosestrife

Do not be fooled by the stately, floral spires of purple loosestrife. This insidious weed grows from 3 feet to a towering 7 feet tall. Loosestrife takes over swiftly - a few plants dropping up to 2 million seeds per year - building a seed bank that can lay in the ground for years like a weedy trojan horse. If you drown it, the seeds can still live up to 20 months under water. Cut it up? Loose or trampled stems can produce roots and shoots, multiplying the problem. Try decreasing its light supply? Loosestrife will produce a different leaf morphology to adjust. With all these strategies in place, purple loosestrife can devastate native vegetation - overrunning thousands of acres of wetland at a time.

9. A Floating Fern - Salvinia

This free-floating aquatic fern introduced from an unregulated aquarium trade, can unbelievably double its population every two days! It forms dense mats up to three feet deep on the water's surface. One of the largest infestations was a stunning ninety-six square miles of water surface. Giant salvinia is found in freshwater lakes, wetlands, and streams though out the southwestern US. It thrives in nutrient-rich water, so it grows particularly vigorously in water enriched by fertilizer run-off or sewer-treated plant waste. Just a tiny fragment chopped up by a boat propeller and stuck to the bottom of a vessel can spawn a who new colony in another water body. Once spread into a new lake it will take over until it has removed all of the oxygen from the water. Over 150 lakes in the US are battling Salvinia from Virginia to California.

10. Water Hyacinth - A showy floating plant.

This South American native aquatic plant is not hard to recognize. It grows to about three feet tall and sports luscious lavender blooms with a distinctive yellow spot on just one of its six petals. Although it is beautiful, the crimes that this aquatic plant has committed are so great that it should be locked away forever - if only that worked. Water hyacinth forms dense, sprawling mats on the waters surface that even boats have a hard time penetrating. Those mats become islands of their own, providing the perfect environment for other semi-aquatic plants and grasses to sprout. It is freakishly prolific, doubling its population every two weeks. Because of that its gone on a crime spree in Asia, Australia, the Americans and other parts of Africa. This plant ranks as one of the world's worst aquatic weeds.

Other Bizarre Plants from Amy Stewart's Wicked Plants

We've been inspired by this elegantly written book, and the work we did on the videos for the exhibit that we wanted to create a short list of plants, many of which we've filmmed already, so that you can explore some of the other deadly plants in a vicarious way.

Death Camas

Castor Bean

Monk's Hood

Curare Vine

Ayahuasca Vine

Angel's Trumpet

Coca

Coyotillo

English Ivy

Dieffenbachia

Habaneros

Henbane

Absinthe

Mezcal

Jimson Weed

Calerpa Algae

Poison Ivy

Mandrake

Marijuana

Oleander

Azalea and Rhododendrons

Foxglove

Opium Poppy

Peyote Cactus

San Pedro Cactus

Morning Glory

Poison Hemlock

Strangler Figs

Cashew Tree

Mango Tree

Sago Palm

Kalanchoe

Aloe vera

Marijuana

Stinging Nettle

Tobacco

Water Hemlock

Skunk Cabbage

Rattan

White Snakeroot

Burdock

Yew

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Wicked and Deadly Plants - Untamed Science

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My name is Rob Nelson, and I've been interested in marine science my whole life. Fish were my world. However, sometime in college I remember thinking that I know nothing about plants. They became one of my newfound passions, leading me to film and document them for over 10 years now.

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This a name of a movie on Netflix so I can't get the whole thing... So here is a trailer. Please watch if you can

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island of TRASH in Pacific

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The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a collection of marine debris in the North Pacific Ocean. Marine debris is litter that ends up in the ocean, seas, and other large bodies of water.

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Should we be doing this?

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Scientists who study wild animals have long faced a dilemma: In order to study their subjects, they must get very close to the animals, sometimes even capturing or tranquilizing them to do diagnostics or attach a tag or radio transmitter. And this can harm the animal.

Many of these measures yield valuable information. For instance, tagging birds with leg bands is a long established tool in assessing and tracking bird populations, and radio telemetry and satellite tracking are turning up rich data on all sorts of sea and land animals. But sometimes the scientists' interventions can significantly affect the animals-even killing them-and there's long been tension between animal advocates and wildlife researchers over the ethics of this type of research. Sometimes there's even disagreement among scientists themselves.

Last month, for instance, a scientist announced that his long-running study found that flipper bands, widely used to study all sorts of penguins, are harmful to king penguins. Penguins wearing the bands produced fewer chicks and were more likely to die than were penguins with no bands, reports Science magazine.

The scientist who did the study, Yvon la Maho, was prompted by long-standing concerns in the science community about the flipper bands' effects, as well as a host of inconclusive or contradictory studies on the subject. His finding has only strengthened his view that scientists should use an alternative: tiny RFID tags that are injected under the animals' skin.

I imagine that some animal advocates find this an unsatisfactory alternative: After all, you're still catching, restraining, and forcibly injecting a man-made object into the bird's body. And one marine ecologist tells Science that RFID chips can't do everything that banding can do. But perhaps a few researchers who can move to RFID tags will do so, thus sparing some king penguins the most unroyal indignity of suffering and even dying for science.

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When Tagging Wild Animals Goes Wrong - Wild Green - Utne Reader

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Scientists who study wild animals have long faced a dilemma: In order to study their subjects, they must get very close to the animals, sometimes even capturing or tranquilizing them to do diagnostics or attach a tag or radio transmitter. And this can harm the animal.

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Seaweed might be killing off reefs

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By Daniel Strain, ScienceNOW
"Attack of the killer seaweed" may sound like a cheesy horror flick, but for many coral species, murderous multicellular algae have become real-life villains. A new study of reefs in the South Pacific suggests that some algae can poison coral on contact. This chemical warfare may be increasing the pressure on struggling reef communities worldwide, researchers say.

Along the reefs dotting Fiji, overfishing has pitted corals against algae in a battle royale. On swaths of coastline where fishing is restricted, corals such as the tall and branching Acropora millepora rule, says study co-author Mark Hay, a marine ecologist at the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta.

But where Fijians spear lots of herbivores such as bird-beaked parrotfish, few fish remain to prune back the region's seaweeds, a blanket term for many types of big algae. These algae then creep in, extending their tendrils over close to 60 percent of the ocean bottom, Hay estimates, and turning waters a sludgy green. Such "seaweed-covered parking lots" aren't unique to Fiji, either, he says.

Recent studies have hinted that this ocean greenery may be carrying out a subtle chemical war on sensitive reefs. To investigate this covert struggle, Hay and colleagues strung eight different species of Fijian seaweed across growing corals, including A. millepora colonies. True to the researchers' suspicions, many of these algal species seemed to wield a poison touch. In less than 2 weeks, the test coral often began to discolor and even die where it rubbed against the seaweeds, the team reports today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Faux seaweeds made of plastic had no such effect.

Hay and colleagues then mashed up several of these seaweeds to identify their killer concoction. The key ingredient turned out to be chemicals called terpenes, which some algae use to sicken fish that feed on them. Terpene extracts alone killed off corals, the researchers found. But some algae seemed to be more liberal with their toxins than others, Hay notes. When one particularly nasty specimen called turtle weed ( Chlorodesmis fastigiata) rubs against A. millepora, for instance, wide bands of dying tissue girdle the coral.

This seaweed is so nasty, in fact, that most marine herbivores avoid it on sight - except for one species of rabbitfish that quivers with excitement every time it spots this not-so-common algae. That interaction highlights the importance of prudent fishing practices, he adds. If Fijians developed a particular taste for that one rabbitfish, for instance, turtle weed might begin to grow out of control, launching its bid for world, or at least South Pacific, domination. Hay would like to work with Fijians to identify and protect the herbivores most responsible for trimming back deadly seaweeds, giving sensitive corals a fighting chance.

"It's certainly a novel finding," says John Bruno, a marine ecologist at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. But not all seaweeds are poisonous, he adds. Many scientists argue that algae - toxins or no - rarely kill off adult corals en masse. Instead, these opportunistic organisms may simply be capitalizing on the slow death of the invertebrates due to pollution, climate change, or other factors. He adds, however, that the seaweeds Hay and colleagues studied would likely be exceptionally toxic to young, coin-sized corals that have yet to grow big and hale.

Terpenes from seaweed are almost certainly not the only reason for the mysterious global decline of corals, says Jennifer Smith, a marine ecologist at the University of California, San Diego. Most scientists rank overfishing, pollution, and warming oceans among the biggest overall contributors. But corals may suffer from other nasty tricks played by seaweed. In a 2006 study, Smith and colleagues sleuthed out that some tropical algae could take the epidemic route to domination. In the lab, these seaweeds leak huge quantities of dissolved carbon that then fuels the spread of potentially infectious microbes on coral surfaces. "You can imagine that [algae and corals] have evolved over the years different mechanisms for battling each other and fighting these turf wars," Smith says.
Updated: Oct. 18, 2011; 10:50 a.m. EDT
This story provided by ScienceNOW, the daily online news service of the journal Science.
Image:__ __Lindsey Kramer/ USFWS/Flickr See Also:

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Toxic Seaweed Poisons Coral Reefs on Contact

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By Daniel Strain, ScienceNOW "Attack of the killer seaweed" may sound like a cheesy horror flick, but for many coral species, murderous multicellular algae have become real-life villains. A new study of reefs in the South Pacific suggests that some algae can poison coral on contact.

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(Ms. V's request)

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To understand the changing chemistry of the oceans and the impacts of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems. Our observations of key physical, chemical, and biological parameters support NOAA's overall efforts to predict how marine ecosystems will respond and to develop management strategies for adapting to the consequences of ocean acidification.

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1. Does the equipment marine biologists use effect animal habits/ and or their lives?
2. Do the plants effect the animal life in a negative/positive ways or both?
3.Which negative effects  have marine life populations in decline? Which species?

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For going to unfathomable depths

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national oceanic and atmospheric administration

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NOAA Ocean Explorer: Technology: Submersibles

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As much as we may learn about our planet's underwater habitats through the use of satellites, shipboard sensors and divers, these technologies scratch only the surface of the oceans. Submersibles alone enable us to explore the abyssal depths. This section of the site highlights some of the major advancements in submersible technology.

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testing..

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and paleoecology. products include: water samplers

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Aquatic Research Instruments - Equipment and services for Aquatic Research

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Aquatic Research Instruments: plankton net, closing plankton net, bongo plankton net, Tucker trawl plankton net, stream sampling net, water sampler, horizontal water sampler, vertical water sampler, sediment corer, Russian peat borer, gravity corer, piston corer, percussion corer, plankton trap, Utermoehl phytoplankton sedimentation chamber, Folsom plankton sample splitter, sediment traps, limnocorral, plankton counting tray.

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and how they effect the creatures
(series)

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(jaws theme song...)

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BY KATELYNN RAINEY

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find out what a marine biologist is and stuff you need to know

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A marine biologist is someone who studies all types of sea creatures, and can choose to specialize in studying large ocean animals, all the way down to microscopic organisms. Everything from whales to the plankton they eat, and everything else in between, can be studied.

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We cause a lot of problems

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Throughout human existence we have relied on the oceans - for food, as a waste dump, for recreation, for economic opportunities and so on. However, it's not only our activities in the marine environment that affect life in the sea - it's also the things we do on land.

With more than half the world's population now living within 100 kilometres of the coast, it's not surprising that our activities are taking their toll. Human impacts have increased along with our rapid population growth, substantial developments in technology and significant changes in land use. Over-fishing, pollution and introduced species are affecting life in the sea - and New Zealand is no exception!

Fisheries

Humans living near the coast have probably always used the ocean as a source of food. However, with advances in fishing equipment, larger ships and new tracking technologies, many fish stocks around the world have reduced significantly. Fish stocks on continental shelf areas are now widely considered to be fully or over exploited. Aside from reducing fish stocks, unsustainable fishing practices can have other negative impacts on the marine environment. For example, some fishing techniques such as dredging and trawling can cause widespread damage to marine habitats and organisms living on the sea floor. These techniques also often capture non-target species (known as bycatch) that are then discarded.

In New Zealand, fisheries are managed by a quota system that sets catch limits for commercially important species and aims at sustainable management of our fish stocks. The Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society (NZ) publishes the Best Fish Guide to try and encourage us to make more sustainable choices when purchasing seafood. The list evaluates fish stocks and bycatch levels and the fishing methods used.

Pollution

Our oceans have long been used as an intentional dumping ground for all sorts of waste including sewage, industrial run-off and chemicals. In more recent times, policy changes in many countries have reflected the view that the ocean does not have an infinite capacity to absorb our waste. However, marine pollution remains a major problem and threatens life in the sea at all levels.

Some marine pollution may be accidental, for example, oil spills caused by tanker accidents. Some may be indirect, when pollutants from our communities flow out to sea via stormwater drains and rivers. Some effects may not be immediately obvious, for example, bioaccumulation - the process where levels of toxic chemicals in organisms increase as they eat each other at each successive trophic level in the food web.

All marine pollution has the potential to seriously damage marine habitats and life in the sea. Scientists are concerned that marine pollution places extra stress on organisms that are already threatened or endangered.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is the result of a particular type of marine pollution. It is caused by the release of excess nutrients into coastal areas via streams and rivers. These nutrients come from fertilisers used in intensive farming practices on land. Additional nutrients in the sea can lead to excessive phytoplankton growth that results in 'blooms'. When these large numbers of organisms die, the sharp increase in decomposition of the dead organisms by oxygen-using bacteria depletes oxygen levels. In some cases, this can result in the death by oxygen starvation of large numbers of other organisms such as fish.

Introduced species

Since the arrival of humans in New Zealand, introduced species in our terrestrial ecosystems have contributed to a significant loss of biodiversity. Introduced species also present a threat to our marine environment. It is not always easy to monitor or prevent the introduction of unwanted marine organisms, and visiting ships may introduce them accidentally on their hulls, in ballast water or on equipment.

Not all introduced species will spread or even survive, but once established, they may be difficult or impossible to remove. For example, the Japanese seaweed, wakame Undaria pinnatifida, which probably arrived in 1987, is now widespread. Scientists are still monitoring its impact on our native marine organisms.

In New Zealand, the Ministry of Primary Industries is responsible for providing border inspectors who manage risks from people, planes, vessels (like ships) and goods coming into the country. They also coordinate responses when new, harmful pests and diseases are detected in our country.

Nature of science

Ocean acidification

There is evidence to suggest that human activities have caused the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere to rise dramatically. This impacts on the marine environment as the world's oceans currently absorb as much as one-third of all CO ₂ emissions in our atmosphere. This absorption of CO ₂ causes the pH to decrease, resulting in the seawater becoming more acidic.

Scientists have long understood that an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will result in higher levels of dissolved CO ₂ in seawater. However, a relatively recent discovery is that even small changes in water pH can have big impacts on marine biology. Ocean acidification is a worldwide issue, but as CO ₂ is more soluble in colder water, it is of particular concern in New Zealand's temperate oceans.

It is difficult to predict the overall impact on the marine ecosystem but many scientists fear that ocean acidification has the potential to decrease marine biodiversity on a very large scale.

New Zealanders are aware that old ways of managing our seas are in need of a rethink. The Sustainable Seas National Science Challenge is tasked with helping New Zealand enhance the value of our marine resources while ensuring they are safeguarded for future generations.

Related content

Useful links

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Throughout human existence we have relied on the oceans - for food, as a waste dump, for recreation, for economic opportunities and so on. However, it's not only our activities in the marine environment that affect life in the sea - it's also the things we do on land.

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Fun facts about marine creatures and biology

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Fun facts about marine creatures and biology

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(series)

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Negative effects causing marine life to decline

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Negative effects causing marine life to decline

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(series)

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(rising oceans + temp rise=dead marine life

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Marine species affected by climate change include plankton - which forms the basis of marine food chains - corals, fish, polar bears, walruses, seals, sea lions, penguins, and seabirds.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts a further rise of between 1.4°C and 5.8°C by the end of the century. Climate change could therefore well be the knock-out punch for many species which are already under stress from overfishing and habitat loss.

The key impacts of climate change on the marine environment are...

Coral bleaching

One of the most visually dramatic effects of climate change is coral bleaching, a stress response caused by high water temperatures that can lead to coral death.

Recent years have seen widespread and severe coral bleaching episodes around the world, with coral mortality reaching 70% in some regions.

More on coral bleaching

Stormy weather

Most scientists believe that global warming will herald a new era of extreme and unpredictable weather.

Tropical storms and heavier rainfall may increase and so too would the consequent physical damage to coral reefs, other coastal ecosystems, and coastal communities. Hurricanes Hugo and Marilyn hit the US Virgin Islands National Park in 1989 and 1995, respectively, and did massive damage to coral ecosystems.

More on extreme weather

Moving homes?

As the oceans warm, the location of the ideal water temperature may shift for many species.

A study has shown that fish in the North Sea have moved further north or into deeper water in response to rising sea temperatures. Other species may lose their homes for other reasons. The distribution of penguin species in the Antarctic Peninsula region, for example, is changing with reductions in sea ice due to global warming.

More on the impact of climate change on species

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Marine species affected by climate change include plankton - which forms the basis of marine food chains - corals, fish, polar bears, walruses, seals, sea lions, penguins, and seabirds. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts a further rise of between 1.4°C and 5.8°C by the end of the century.

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Anemones are dangerous to many creatures

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Anemones are dangerous to many creatures

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(except species like clown fish)

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This anemone is predatory and feeds on fishes, crustaceans, or other invertebrates that stray too close to its tentacles. The tentacles are covered with stinging cells that paralyze their prey. Once a small fish or other prey is captured, the anemone quickly wraps it in as many tentacles as possible. It then efficiently passes the prey to its mouth, at the center of its disc.

Though there are no anemonefishes native to the Caribbean, the giant Caribbean sea anemone is known to house some species of symbiotic animals. Juvenile cardinalfishes, some cleaner shrimps, and some crabs are all known to utilize giant Caribbean sea anemones as habitat. This relationship provides the anemone with a means to remove parasites and protection from some species that may try to feed on its tentacles and provides the symbiotic animal with protection from predators that are sensitive to the anemone's sting.

Giant Caribbean sea snemones can either be hermaphroditic (having the ability to produce both eggs and sperm) or they can be only one of the two sexes. This species reproduces by broadcast spawning, where several individuals release their eggs and sperm into the water column at the same time. This behavior increases the likelihood that the eggs will be fertilized and decreases the threat of predation by egg predators on the reef surface. After a short period living in the water column, baby giant Caribbean sea anemones seek out a suitable spot on the reef, settle, and attach semi-permanently to a hard surface. As mentioned above, unlike corals and most other anemones, adult giant Caribbean sea anemones can move short distances if needed. When threatened, giant Caribbean sea anemones pull their tentacles into their mouths and close their bodies into a tight ball, making it difficult for potential predators to prey on them.

The conservation status of this species is not currently known, but they almost certainly face the same threats as any coral reef organism. Destructive fishing practices, pollution, disease, and climate change threaten these valuable ecosystems and the species that live on them.

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This anemone is predatory and feeds on fishes, crustaceans, or other invertebrates that stray too close to its tentacles. The tentacles are covered with stinging cells that paralyze their prey. Once a small fish or other prey is captured, the anemone quickly wraps it in as many tentacles as possible.

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This concerns marine life as well.

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An incendiary new report from two major conservation groups predicts dire circumstances for the world's wild animals, warning that two-thirds of vertebrate populations could be wiped out by 2020, based on 1970 population levels.

The new report, called the Living Planet Index, was prepared by the World Wildlife Fund and the Zoological Society of London. The index found that animal populations dropped by 58 percent between 1970 and 2012, largely as a result of human activities, from poaching to habitat loss and pollution.

The team then extrapolated those trends forward to 2020. They based their analysis on data collected in the field on more than 14,000 populations of vertebrates, from 3,700 different species. The data came from many sources, from all around the world.

The researchers concluded that lakes and rivers saw the steepest declines in resident animals. Groups that have fared particularly badly include marine mammals, fish, and some birds ( especially vultures).

We must "act now to reform our food and energy systems and meet global commitments on addressing climate change, protecting biodiversity and supporting sustainable development," the report begins.

"Global biodiversity is declining at an alarming rate, putting the survival of other species and our own future at risk," the index warns.

But hang on, says National Geographic explorer and conservation scientist Stuart Pimm of Duke University, who was not involved with the report.

"Trying to take all those different data sets, from all over the world, and putting that in a blender and trying to break that down into one number is irresponsible," Pimm says. "That's disingenuous and not helpful."

Pimm says there is far too much variability across different regions, from the land to the sea, and too much uncertainty to predict a dire crash of all species. Further, the report "depresses people to no end, and suggests there is no hope," he says.

"But there is a lot of hope around the world," Pimm adds.

He points to the recent successes in stemming the decline of lions, tigers, and other big cats across Africa and Asia, some of which has been spearheaded by National Geographic's Big Cats Initiative, which Pimm works on.

As another example, a recent study found that coral reefs are actually doing better, and are more resilient in the face of warming seas and acidification, than scientists had thought.

Although conservationists face many challenges in protecting endangered species and their habitat, the actual issues they face are more varied and subtle than a single number of index can convey, says Pimm.

Such reports may be more about trying to grab attention and raise money than sound science, he says.

Conservation biologist Luke Dollar, who leads National Geographic's Big Cats Initiative, says he agrees with Pimm's assessment of the Living Planet Index. "That said, there's no question that a great number of populations of myriad species are in substantial decline, and will continue to demand ever-increasing efforts to stem their loss and protect the systems of which they are a part," says Dollar.

"The need for self-awareness and proactive measures to mitigate our ever-increasing impact on wildlife has also never been greater," says Dollar.
This story was updated at 6:30 pm ET with comments from Luke Dollar.

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World to Lose Two-Thirds of Wild Animals by 2020?

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An incendiary new report from two major conservation groups predicts dire circumstances for the world's wild animals, warning that two-thirds of vertebrate populations could be wiped out by 2020, based on 1970 population levels. The new report, called the Living Planet Index, was prepared by the World Wildlife Fund and the Zoological Society of London.

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What is your favorite marine creature?
Here is my pick...

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Marine Mammals: Dolphins/whales and porpoises communication

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Marine Mammals: Dolphins/whales and porpoises communication

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#1 in series

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Equivalent to sonar or radar, echolocation is the production of sound used for communication. Echolocation is the use of ultra-high frequency sounds for navigation and locating prey. Bats and marine mammals are able to use sound to "see". It is the returning echoes that give the animal an "image" of some parts of its environment.

The echoes must be loud enough to return to the animal and short enough so that the echo of the sender returns back to the animal or human before the next one is sent out. Echolocation is used by mammals like dolphins, whales and bats. Humans have also learned this ability to interact with there environment when they are blind. The term was created by Donald Griffin, who was the first to conclusively demonstrate its existence in bats.

In some bats the sounds are made and sent out by their noses but, most send different sounds through their mouth. The sounds bounce off objects and prey in their surroundings like insects or branches, and are picked up by the bat's sensitive ears. Although bats have good eyesight, they depend on the echolocation system to navigate as well as capture their food. Bats give off pulses at very high frequencies that are not audible to humans, at an impressive rate of 200 pulses per second. They can avoid obstacles no wider than a piece of thread, identify the size of objects, and capture flying insects using this method. There are about 800 different species of bats that use different patterns of frequencies. This allows scientist the ability to identify various types of bats in dark places, such as caves.

Marine mammals also use echolocation as a means of sight. Thought to be an "Auditory Imaging System" by different species of mammals, echolocation involves the vocalizations by the echo locating mammal which detects the echoes of sounds and uses them to produce 3-Dimensional information. For example, dolphins produce sounds by squeezing air through their nasal passages beneath the blowhole. They then focus on sounds they make with their melon. The melon is a fat filled area on the dolphin's forehead that acts like a lens to focus on sound waves ahead of the dolphins. The sound waves given are then reflected off the objects and received through the dolphin's lower jaw.

Echolocation is used to locate prey at great depths when there is very little or no light to see. Whales use a series of clicks during their dives. The depth increases the frequency of the clicks. As the whales approach their prey, the clicks are so close together, they sound like a continuous buzz. The average is approximately 390 meters between the start of the clicking to the 1st buzz.

Scientists have discovered that in the brains of the blind, the visual cortex becomes active when another sense is used or stimulated. The substitutions for sight are typically hearing and touch. With echolocation, blind people can interact with the world like marine mammals and bats. Ben Underwood, a 14 year old of California, is one of the few people who use this method for his "sight". Diagnosed with cancer at the age of 2, he lost his vision and learned to use echolocation as his primary source of navigation. Ben makes "clicking" sounds to communicate with people and to establish the identity of the objects surrounding him. By interpreting the different sound waves reflected off nearby objects, a person trained to navigate by echolocation can identify the location and even the size of nearby objects. They use this information to travel from place to place and steer around obstacles in their course. With echolocation, Mr. Underwood can identify where the curbs are when he is riding his bike around his neighborhood.

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Equivalent to sonar or radar, echolocation is the production of sound used for communication. Echolocation is the use of ultra-high frequency sounds for navigation and locating prey. Bats and marine mammals are able to use sound to "see". It is the returning echoes that give the animal an "image" of some parts of its environment.