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Colons and semicolons are some of the most feared, omitted and misused punctuation marks in the history of English grammar! From children who never learn to use them properly, to adults who secretly always omit them because they're just not sure, nobody ever seems to quite know how to use them, which is which, or what their real role is anyway. But if colons confound you and semicolons leave you stumped, fear not! Help is at hand with the funny grammar guide's simple, no-nonsense rules to when to use which and when to leave them well alone!

Colons

When we write, we often want to join together two separate sentences to make one longer, complex sentence. One way of doing this is to use a conjunction (a joining word) to bridge the gap. Conjunctions are words like and or but. If NO conjunction is used, then a colon can be used to join the two sentences when the second sentence illustrates or further explains what was said in the first sentence.

For example: I like going to the cinema: horrors are my favourite.
Or: Tom loved marshmallows and toffee: both were sweet and sticky.

Another use of the colon is to introduce a list at the end of a sentence.

For example: Mammals have several common characteristics: hair, warm blood and live young.

Although strictly speaking a colon should only introduce a list at the end of a proper sentence, they are occasionally used to introduce lists after a title, which was the effect intended by the maker of this magpie sign. Unfortunately, as you can see, he has chosen the wrong form of punctuation, making an already bizarre sign even stranger! Colons may also occasionally be used to introduce quotes, usually if the quote is longer than two lines in length. They might also be used to introduce examples, as seen throughout this blog post!

Semicolons

Like a colon, a semicolon may be used in place of a conjunction to join two separate sentences. The difference is that a semicolon should be used when the second sentence does NOT illustrate or explain the first, but is simply a separate or new idea.

For example: Nick ate the popcorn; it tasted delicious.

Note that although the two sentences refer to the same subject and continue the same thought, the second one does not qualify or explain the first - it is simply a new piece of information on the same theme.

TOP GRAMMAR TIP: As these are two separate sentences, they need a semicolon to separate them as a comma would not be sufficient. Using a comma in place of a semicolon is one of the most common mistakes in English grammar, as this unfortunate democrat billboard illustrates!

Unlike a colon, a semicolon may also be used to join two separate sentences if an introductory word like however, therefore or for example is used. These words are sometimes called connectives.

TOP GRAMMAR TIP: In these cases, the semicolon directly precedes the introductory word, which must then be followed by a comma.

For example: I hate sweet things; however, I do enjoy the occasional ice cream.

Another important use of the semicolon is to separate items on a list when the items themselves contain commas.

For example: Our students come from towns and cities as diverse as Los Angeles, California; Boston, Massachusetts and Nashville, Tennessee.

This rather unfortunate church sign is an ideal way to illustrate the difference between the colon and the semicolon. Its meaning is ambiguous because of its lack of punctuation. If a colon was used to separate the two clauses, it would suggest that the church should be allowed to help with the killing, because of the implied explanation or extension of the first sentence by the second! If a semicolon was used however, the two sentences would be considered separate, giving the intended positive message! This is a great example of the power these little punctuation marks have to completely change the meaning of your sentences...use them wisely!

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The Funny Grammar Guide to Colons and Semicolons - Oxbridge Editing

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Colons and semicolons are some of the most feared, omitted and misused punctuation marks in the history of English grammar! From children who never learn to use them properly, to adults who secretly always omit them because they're just not sure, nobody ever seems to quite know how to use them, which is which, or ...

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A semicolon!

The semicolon is amongst the youngest of the punctuation marks. It was introduced in Venice in 1494. In comparison to the full stop, which was invented in the 3rd Century BC, it is practically a baby.

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A semicolon! The semicolon is amongst the youngest of the punctuation marks. It was introduced in Venice in 1494. In comparison to the full stop, which was invented in the 3rd Century BC, it is practically a baby.

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Formal vs. Informal Writing: A Complete Guide

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A key part of clear communication is considering your audience. How well you know them, and how casual…

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In this lesson, we'll work with a sample text. You can see it higher up on this page. We recommend reading it before you continue watching. Now, let's look at the most important reading strategy you need to use.

1. Finding the Main Idea

To understand and summarise a text, you need to find the main idea. Every coherent text has one central idea, which connects the different parts of the text. You need to know what this is. But, every text is different, and there isn't one way to find the main idea. Instead, you need to look at the whole thing.

Here are some things you should look at: One: is there a title or headings? These will often highlight the most important points. Two: what is the first sentence about? Often, the first sentence of a text or paragraph will summarise the main ideas. Three: what does most of the text talk about? Look at each sentence and paragraph. Is there a single topic which connects them? Look at our sample text and think about these questions. Pause the video if you need more reading time.

So, what do you think the main idea of our sample text is? We'll show you three possible summaries. Which do you think is best?

1. This text is about Guugu Yimithirr, and gives some information about the history of the language and how it has changed over time.

2. The text is about indigenous Australian languages which are spoken in northern Australia, and which are often different from European languages in interesting ways.

3. The text is about Guugu Yimithirr, an Australian language which is unusual because it does not have words for 'left', 'right', 'forwards' or 'backwards'.

What do you think? The best is number three. Let's see why. First, you should look at the title. The title tells you that the text will be about Guugu Yimithirr, but it also mentions that this language is 'unusual'. You should immediately focus on this word, because it shows that this language is different in some way. Also, 'unusual' could mean many things. What does it mean here? Unusual how? Second, what's the first sentence about? Here, it gives background information. It doesn't help you to find the main idea. That's OK-in this case, the background information is helpful, because most people don't know what Guugu Yimithirr is. Third, what does most of the text talk about? Apart from the first sentence, every sentence is about the same topic: the fact that Guugu Yimithirr uses compass directions -north, south, east, west-for all directions, because there are no words for 'left', 'right', and so on. This answers the question you found in the title: why is this language unusual? Now you have a reason. However, analysing the text in this way is complex, and there are other sub-skills you might need.

Let's look at an important example.

2. Separating General Ideas from Details

To summarise a text, you need to find which ideas are general, and which are details or examples. The general ideas will give you the overall meaning. If you confuse general ideas and details, you might misunderstand the overall meaning what you're reading. Unfortunately, there are no clear markers which show you what's general or not. A single sentence might mix general ideas and details together. You need to use context and other clues to work out which ideas are general and which are details. Look at five extracts from our sample text.

1. Guugu Yimithirr is an indigenous Australian language, spoken in northern Queensland.

2. The majority of speakers live in the town of Hopevale.

3. The language is perhaps more notable for entirely lacking 'egocentric' directions.

4. There are no words for 'left', 'right', 'backwards' or 'forwards'.

5. For example, you might hear "Your pen is on the table, just north of the fruit bowl.

What do you think? Are these general ideas, or details? Which do you need to understand in order to find the overall meaning? Sentences one, three and four are general. Two and five are details. One is general because it introduces the topic by giving background information. This is like a topic sentence, which tells you what the rest of the text will be about. Two is a detail. It's more background information; you don't need it to understand the overall meaning. Three is a general, important idea. This sentence highlights the unusual feature of the Guugu Yimithirr language. The rest of the text expands on the idea introduced in this sentence. We said that four is general; however, it's kind of in the middle. It explains the exact meaning of 'lacking egocentric directions' which is referred to in sentence three. Technically, this sentence isn't necessary to understand the main idea. On the other hand, most people-including educated native English speakers-wouldn't know what 'egocentric directions' are. This sentence explains it, and so it *is* important for understanding the whole text. Five is a detail. It adds an example of how Guugu Yimithirr speakers talk about position and direction, but it isn't necessary to understand the main idea. So, what do you need to focus on here? First, it's a good idea to skim a text first, reading fast and trying to understand the overall idea in a simple way. In order to separate general ideas from details, you need some context. Until you've read the whole thing, you won't have this. Second, look for linking phrases like 'for example', 'for instance', 'specifically' or 'in particular.' Linking phrases like these show you that what follows is an explanation of a more general idea that was mentioned before. Third, remember that one sentence can contain both general ideas and details mixed together. For example, this sentence contains both a detail-about the word 'kangaroo'-and a general point.

The English word 'kangaroo' originates from Guugu Yimithirr, but the language is perhaps more notable for entirely lacking 'egocentric' directions.

Now, why not do some more practice? Look at the rest of our sample text. Which ideas are general? Which ideas are details? Pause the video and try it now, if you want. Did you do it? Here's a shorter version, with all examples and details removed.

Guugu Yimithirr is an indigenous Australian language, spoken in northern Queensland. The language is perhaps more notable for entirely lacking 'egocentric' directions. This means that there are no words for 'left', 'right', 'backwards' or 'forwards', and speakers of Guugu Yimithirr give directions exclusively using points of the compass. Guugu Yimithirr speakers use subtle environmental cues to orient themselves to the points of the compass. They can temporarily lose this ability if they move a large distance.

If you can do this, you'll be able to read much faster. Why? Because you only need to focus on the general ideas to understand the overall meaning. Here, you only need to understand 76 words, instead of 230. This saves you time, which could be helpful if you are under time pressure, like in an IELTS reading exam. There's another related, skill which can help you to understand and summarise a text in English. Let's look!

3. Identifying Key Words

If you're a non-native speaker reading in English, you'll probably have this problem often: there are words which you don't understand. Maybe there are several words which you don't know. Don't panic! This makes things more difficult, but there are strategies you can use.

First, look for proper nouns, which start with a capital letter. Sometimes, we see that students think they don't understand a word, but they don't realise that the 'word' is actually a proper noun, like a person's name, or a place name. Can you find three examples of proper nouns in our text? Pause the video if you want time to think about it. You could say 'Guugu Yimithirr', 'Queensland', 'Hopevale', 'English' or 'Brisbane'. Generally, if a proper noun is important or not widely-understood, it will be explained. For example, 'Guugu Yimithirr' is obviously important, and it's explained in the first sentence. If a proper noun isn't explained, you can usually ignore it, or try to work out the meaning from the context. For example, look at the first sentence.

Guugu Yimithirr is an indigenous Australian language, spoken in northern Queensland; the majority of speakers live in the town of Hopevale.

Even if you've never heard of Queensland or Hopevale, you can work out that they're place names. Next, look for words that tell you that an idea is important. You could look for words like 'important', 'notable', 'significant' or 'essential'. For example, you saw this sentence.

The English word 'kangaroo' originates from Guugu Yimithirr, but the language is perhaps more notable for entirely lacking 'egocentric' directions.

The word ' notable ' highlights something important about the language. This means you should focus on this sentence. If you're under time pressure, you should spend extra time on this sentence. Also, look for words which were also used in the title, or possibly which appeared in the first sentence or paragraph. Remember that writers might use paraphrase, so you might not find the exact same words. There was a key word from the title used in the text. Do you know where? Pause the video if you want time to find it! The word 'unusual' appears in this sentence.

Linguists and anthropologists investigating this unusual trait discovered that Guugu Yimithirr speakers use subtle environmental cues to orient themselves to the points of the compass; specifically, they use the position of the sun, the position of landmarks, or the way that plants grow.

You heard before that 'unusual' is a key word in the title. So, when you see it, you should pay extra attention to this sentence. In fact, this sentence gives you one of the key general ideas. Depending on your situation, you might have different options to deal with unknown words. If you have unlimited time, unlimited patience and access to a dictionary, then you can check the meaning of every word. However, this strategy is not possible in most cases. No one really has unlimited time or unlimited patience. Plus, there are often restrictions; if you're taking an exam, you'll have a time limit and you probably won't be able to use a dictionary. This is why it's important to focus on the general ideas, and then find key words within them. If there are 50 words you don't know, that's difficult to deal with. However, if you can focus on a smaller number of more important sentences, there will be fewer unknown words.

At this point, you should know how to read and summarise a text in English. We have a challenge for you! At the top of this page, you'll find a second text to practise with. If you're watching on YouTube, you can find a link in the video description. Can you write a summary of the second text? Your summary should be maximum two sentences, or ideally just one. Use the reading techniques you saw in this lesson. Post your suggestion in the comments, and read other people's ideas.

Thanks for watching!

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How to Summarise a Text - Video | Oxford Online English

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In this lesson, we'll work with a sample text. You can see it higher up on this page. We recommend reading it before you continue watching. Now, let's look at the most important reading strategy you need to use. 1. Finding the Main Idea To understand and summarise a text, you need to find the main idea.

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What do you think of when you hear the word structure?

I think of builders and architects planning the parts of a building and figuring out how all of the elements will fit together in the final product.

You and I might not build buildings, but we do build sentences. We can think of ourselves as word architects, and word architects need to study sentence structure so that they know what possibilities sentences hold.

That way, we can learn to vary our sentences, which will make our writing more engaging, and we can make sure that our sentences are grammatically correct.

But before we get to studying sentence structure, have you ever stopped to think about what a sentence actually is?

A sentence is a group of words, with both a subject and a verb, that expresses a complete thought. Sentences make it easy to understand ideas and learn information.

We can categorize sentences based on different criteria, and one way to categorize them is based on their structure.

What are clauses and why are they important?

When I say that we're looking at a sentence's structure, what we're really looking at is what combination of independent clauses and dependent clauses a sentence has. Because of that, it's important that you know a little bit about clauses before we get started.

are groups of words with both a subject and a verb. There are two main types of clauses.

Independent clauses are clauses that can stand alone as complete thoughts.

I teach grammar is an independent clause. It contains a subject (I), a verb ( teach), and it expresses a complete thought.

Dependent clauses are clauses that cannot stand alone as complete thoughts.

Because I teach grammar is a dependent clause. It contains a subject ( I), a verb ( teach), and it does not express a complete thought.

Okay...back to sentence structure...

When we categorize sentences based on structure (different combinations of independent and dependent clauses), we find that there are four sentence structures. Let's learn about each one!

The Four Sentence Structures

1. Simple Sentences

A simple sentence contains only one independent clause.
I kicked the ball.
Remember that an independent clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete thought.

I'll use sentence diagrams to show you what these different sentence structures look like because the diagrams really SHOW you the different structures! Here is a sentence diagram of a simple sentence. Note that there is only one horizontal line.

I kicked the ball is an independent clause. It contains a subject ( I) and a verb ( kicked), and it expresses a complete thought.

Let's look at something that can cause confusion: simple sentences contain one subject and verb, but both or either of those things can be compound. ("Compound" means that something is made up of two or more elements.)

Look at the diagram below and note that the sentence has a compound subject ( Lewis, Alice) and a compound verb ( played, read).
Lewis and Alice played in the backyard and read in the house.
In the diagram above, the compound elements are on separate horizontal lines, but there is just one spot where the main horizontal line meets the vertical line. This shows us that it's still a simple sentence; it just has compound elements.

Speaking of compound things, let's learn about compound sentences!

2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses.
I kicked the ball, and it hit Tom.
These clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. (When you join two independent clauses with only a comma, it's a mistake called a comma splice.)

A coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) is a word that glues sentence elements (words, phrases, clauses) together that are the same.

Here's a sentence diagram of a compound sentence. Note that there are now two horizontal lines, and one is directly below the other.

I kicked the ball is an independent clause.

It hit Tom is also an independent clause.

And is a coordinating conjunction joining the two independent clauses.

I kicked the ball, and it hit Tom is a compound sentence.

Remember that some sentences ( Jeremy and I kicked the ball.) might seem like they're compound if they have compound elements ( Jeremy and I), but they're actually simple.

In order to be a complete sentence, a group of words needs to contain a subject and a verb, and it needs to express a complete thought.

If a group of words is missing any of that information, it's probably a sentence fragment, and if you have a group of words containing two or more independent clauses that are not properly punctuated, it's probably a run-on sentence.

3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains a subordinate clause and an independent clause.
Tom cried because the ball hit him.
A subordinate clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought.

Here's a sentence diagram of a complex sentence. Note that there are still two horizontal lines, but one of them is below the other and moved to the right.

Tom cried is an independent clause.

Because the ball hit him is a dependent adverb clause modifying the verb cried.

Tom cried because the ball hit him is a complex sentence.

Sometimes, it can be hard for people to tell the difference between compound sentences and complex sentences, and a sentence's structures can be changed by swapping out just one word! You can learn more about that here.

4. Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence is just what it seems like it would be. :) It's basically a combination of a compound sentence and a complex sentence. You know what that means, right? It means that these guys contain at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
Tom cried because the ball hit him, and I apologized immediately.
Here's a diagram of a compound-complex sentence. Note that it's a hybrid of a compound sentence and a complex sentence! Two of the horizontal lines are directly above and below each other and the third is hanging out there in the middle.

Tom cried because the ball hit him, and I apologized immediately.

Tom cried and I apologized immediately are both independent clauses. They're being joined by the conjunction and.

Because the ball hit him is a dependent adverb clause modifying the verb cried.

The whole sentence is a compound-complex sentence.

Now you have a great understanding of sentence structure! Be sure to sign up for our free bi-weekly newsletter so that we can keep in touch!

Okay, now you know about simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences, but you might be wondering why this information is even important. Here are 9 things understanding sentence structure will do help you do:

1. Write with clarity. Writing with an understanding of sentence structure helps you present you ideas clearly. This means that you'll be able to communicate your ideas without ambiguity.

2. Write effectively. Whether you're writing an essay, a report, an email, or a speech, knowing how to structure sentences helps you organize your thoughts logically. This enhances your ability to communicate your ideas persuasively and convincingly.

3. Use correct punctuation. Sentence structure is closely tied to punctuation rules. When you understand how sentences are structured, it helps you use the right punctuation.

Even if you don't know how to punctuate a particular sentence, understanding sentence structure allows you to search for the right answer. For example, if you know sentence structure, but you're unsure of punctuation rules, you might perform the following searches:

- Do I add a comma after an introductory adverb clause?
- Does a noun clause acting as the subject of a sentence need a comma after it?

But, in order to create relevant searches, you would need to know what about sentence structure!

4. Have better reading comprehension. When you understand how sentences are constructed, you can better comprehend the material you read. This is particularly important when dealing with complex or technical content. When you understand the grammatical structure of a sentence, it helps you rank the ideas in the sentence based on their relative importance-it helps you understand how the parts of the sentence fit together.

5. Expand your vocabulary. Analyzing sentence structure can lead to a better understanding of word usage, synonyms, antonyms, and idiomatic expressions. This deepens your vocabulary and helps you choose the most appropriate words for your writing.

6. Think critically. Breaking down a sentence's structure encourages you to think critically about the relationships between words and phrases. This can enhance your analytical skills and help you identify flaws or inconsistencies in arguments.

7. Learn a foreign language. If you're learning a new language, understanding sentence structure is crucial! Different languages have different structures, and grasping these differences aids in language acquisition.

8. Be a better editing or proofreader. When you know how sentences are supposed to be constructed, you can identify errors more easily during the editing and proofreading process. This includes spotting run-on sentences, sentence fragments, and subject-verb agreement issues.

9. Get creative. Using proper sentence structure is important, but understanding it also allows you to play with language creatively. You can experiment with sentence lengths, structures, and arrangements to develop your own unique style of writing style. As they say, "You need to understand the rules before you can break them!"

Understanding sentence structure empowers you to effectively express your thoughts and have meaningful conversations. It's a fundamental skill that supports thinking, reading, and writing!

Let's review what we covered on this page!

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Sentences need to have a subject and a verb.

Clauses are groups of words that have both a subject and a verb. Independent clauses can stand alone as complete thoughts. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone as complete thoughts.

When we categorize sentences based on their structure, we find that there are four sentence structures. Each one is simply a different combination of independent and dependent clauses.

1. Simple sentences contain just one independent clause.

2. Compound sentences contain two or more independent clauses.

3. Complex sentences contain one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

4. Compound-complex sentences contain two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Understanding sentence structure helps you read, write, and think more effectively.

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Sentence Structure (Simple, Compound, Complex, & Compound-Complex)

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Find everything you wanted to know about sentence structure! (Including sentence diagrams!) Read more. You know you want to.

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GCSE bias - knowing the difference between fact and opinion

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Knowing the difference between fact and opinion is extremely important. Test your knowledge of bias in this quiz from Education Quizzes

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Making inferences is a skill with which students often need much practice. If you've looked for resources in the same places that I have, you probably haven't been too happy with what you found. I believe that the inference worksheets that I've created are of a higher quality than the other available resources and, as usual, I'm giving them away for free. I hope that you'll appreciate these inference worksheets and that your students may better this valuable reading skills.

In each inference worksheet students are asked to do two things: answer questions where the solutions can only be provided by making logical inferences, and explain how they got their answers. Having students explain their answers helps to slow them down and cause them think about what they are doing, and open-ended questions make it easier for the teacher to identify when students are copying. These inference worksheets are now also available as ereading worksheets. If you have a question or need further clarification about any of these problems or worksheets, leave a comment.

Common Core State Standards Related to Inferences

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.1 - Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support conclusions drawn from the text.

Expand to View All Common Core State Standards Related to Inferences

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.4.1 -Refer to details and examples in a text when explaining what the text says explicitly and when drawing inferences from the text.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.5.1 -Quote accurately from a text when explaining what the text says explicitly and when drawing inferences from the text.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.6.1 -Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.7.1 -Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.8.1 -Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.9-10.1 -Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.11-12.1 - Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves matters uncertain.

Looking For More Reading Worksheets?
Story Structure Worksheets
Fact and Opinion Worksheets
All Reading Worksheets

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Inferences Worksheets | Ereading Worksheets

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Making inferences is a skill with which students often need much practice. If you've looked for resources in the same places that I have, you probably haven't been too happy with what you found. I believe that the inference worksheets that I've created are of a higher quality than the other available resources and, as usual, I'm giving them away for free.

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How many verb tenses are there in English? - Anna Ananichuk

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How misused modifiers can hurt your writing - Emma Bryce

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Complete Sentences - Entry 3/Level 1, GCSE & ESOL

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Possessive Apostrophes - Level 2, GCSE & ESOL

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An entertaining and informative video explaining the use of the possessive apostrophe - look out for the mime artist!

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Subject Verb Agreement - Level 1/2, GCSE & ESOL

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A colourful and enjoyable explanation of the difference between single and plural verbs and how to match them with their subjects.

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Implicit Meaning and Inference - Level 2, GCSE & ESOL

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An entertaining, concise but thorough explanation of implicit meaning and inference that is ideal for level 2 functional English and English GCSE.