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With European colonization of North America came a completely different mindset of that possessed by the Native Americans. After the Corps of Discovery lead an expedition to from the eastern United States to the Pacific Ocean, settlers became obsessed with the idea of "manifest destiny". This is the idea that the vast expansions of land to the west was theirs for the taking. But the story has another side...

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While manifest destiny is a term that coincides with American patriotism, the movement has a darker side. When European settlers made their way across the Great Plains, they brought with them a trail of destruction of natural resources. Steam boats began polluting the rivers, hunters drove bison near extinction, and Native American tribes were displaced from the places they used to call home. Economic success and selfish desire lead many early settlers to occupy regions west of the Mississippi with haste and recklessness. The Homestead Act of 1862 allowed pioneers to be given large plots of land for expanding westward into Native American territories.

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The Native American way of life differed drastically from that of the European settlers. As detailed in the attached document, tribes such as the Sioux revered nature as a sacred source of life. Native Americans believed heavily in the cyclical nature of the universe as well as its power to give and take away. The metaphor of a hoop is used to represent the balance of universal forces such as the cyclical changing of  seasons and pattern of the sun and stars. They also respected other organisms, only hunting for what they needed to conserve for future generations.

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Haynes, C. L. (2020). Garden of Eden. Where is the Garden of Eden. Salem Web Network. Retrieved September 12, 2021, from https://www.biblestudytools.com/bible-s

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The New World: The Myth of Superabundance

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The New World: The Myth of Superabundance

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The settlers that originally colonized North America were looking to escape the conundrum of an exploding population with limited resources in Europe. When they first arrive, first hand accounts drew parallels to the Garden of Eden, owing to the continent's seeming superabundance of wildlife and resources. This myth of superabundance was conveyed to those in Europe, driving mass overexploitation of resources to meet the demand of foreign goods.

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"White Wolves Attacking a Buffalo" George Catlin (1844)

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George Catlin was an artist who proposed the idea of a 'national park' for conservation of declining ecosystems in his letter, "An Artist Proposes a National Park" (1832). Catlin notes the undeniable beauty of the plains as well as the spectacle of watching Native Americans chase buffalo on horseback. Witnessing the exploitation of buffalo in real time, Catlin proposed the need for a protected area where wildlife and its interaction with Native American culture remain untouched so future generations can marvel in the same way that he had. This idea is reflected in the eventual formation of National Parks across the world.

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Emmy Destinn, 1878-1930, three-quarters length portrait, standing, facing left, wearing a fur coat and a hat with feathers. April 2, 1909

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Demand for North American resources drove European colonists to overexploit several species and vast amounts of land, leading to population declines and natural disasters. The formation of the transcontinental railroad enabled hunters and trappers to follow certain species to every corner of the country. In the case of the passenger pigeon, flocks of the birds which once darkened the sky in migration quickly diminished into extinction. Birds native to North America were also hunted heavily for their use as a status symbol in fashion trends as seen in the portrait above. The bison was another animal that was highly sought after for their tongues, which was considered a delicacy at the time. These animals who once covered the plains were nearly driven into extinction. Overexploitation of rangelands from cattle herders and farmers lead to the Dust Bowl in the early 20th century, devastating the agriculturally industry and forcing congressional changes to conservation policies.

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Teddy Roosevelt and the National Park System

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Teddy Roosevelt and the National Park System

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Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th president of the United States and quickly became known for his contribution to conservation of natural wilderness in America. Roosevelt was an avid outdoorsman who enjoyed spending his time hunting in the vast and pristine wilderness areas across the United States. His appreciation for nature lead Roosevelt to develop the National Park system that lead to the preservation of many wilderness areas across the US. His conservationist ideology helped build a greater appreciation for nature within the American population, leading to shift in view of natural resources from expendable to beyond valueable.

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John Muir was a 20th century conservationist who believed heavily in the spiritual well-being promoted by human interaction with nature. Muir's transcendentalist viewpoint of nature was one that was shared by many conservationists at the time. As the industrial revolution pushed civilization to expand into previously untouched wilderness areas, many saw untapped opportunity and resources, but some saw the loss of a way of life and connection to our core being as humans. Muir believed that humans are intrinsically connected to nature and wilderness and that being in nature provides a spiritual experience that cannot be filled elsewhere. The dramatic loss of landscape from development and exploitation of resources proposed not only a problem to the environment, but also a loss of ourselves as creatures connected to the earth.

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Muir. 1901. Our National Parks - (Voice for the Wilderness)

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With vast exploitation of resources occurring in the Western United States, it became clear to many conservationists that all forests and natural resources would eventually be destroyed or exhausted to make way for human progress if not regulated. During his time working for the newly founded Forest Service, Aldo Leopold was once such individual who came to this realization and decided action needed to be taken. Leopold lobbied to congress to create the first wilderness preservation in New Mexico called Gila Wilderness Preservation. While industrialists viewed preservation areas as wasted resources and an attack on progress, several other conservationists began following in the tracks of Leopold to lobby for wilderness preservations as well. Bob Marshall used his connections in the government to lobby for more preservation areas. Howard Zahnizer used his previous skills as a missionary to persuade congressman to develop a national forest system, eventually seeing the idea passed into a law that allowed for 2% of land in the US to be set aside as preservation areas.

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The Dust Bowl was a long-standing natural and man-made disaster that devastated the Great Plains of the United States in the 1930's. The Homestead Act as well as several other governmentally influenced factors pushed thousands of people westward across the US to the Great Plain region to produce food to support the population boom of the 1900's. This combined with poor agricultural practices lead to an overexertion of resources within the soils of this region as well as the removal of critical grasslands. These factors combined with a drought over the region created a weather event that lasted nearly a decade. High winds speeds across the dry plains swept up dirt in such massive quantities that the east coast of the US experienced dust debris. This was a landmark event in conservation policy history as it forces the US to reevaluate their policies on natural resources.

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Paul Ehrlich, author of the population bomb

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Paul Ehrlich sparked major controversy with the publishing and widespread effect of his novel, "The Population Bomb". This book was written in the mid 20th century and outlines the impending doom faced by civilization if exponential population growth continues. He is famously known for his dramatic explanation of the fate of humanity if population control measures are never taken. Ehrlich suggests that a number of measures may be taken to delay the inevitable reality of societal collapse, but ultimately, unregulated breeding amongst humans will create a population that is unable to be supported by our finite resources on Earth. While he had many critics, owing to the fact that his prediction of collapse is well in the past now, Ehrlich's lesson and warning still stands in truth.

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This is first image of Earth from space, taken in 1972. This image had a profound effect on the way humans view their place both on earth and existentially. Human history has been filled with conflict based on race, ethnicity, and religion. All of these things segregate human communities and create division amongst people in general. This image changed that point of view by allowing people to see that we are in fact just living on a giant rock floating through an incomprehensibly large universe that may contain other life. This has brought some people together by giving them a sense of community with the human race as a whole species, rather than individual groups.

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With the end of World War II came a population boom that sparked rapid growth and development of technology in the mid 20th century in the United States. With an increase in demand for food production from a growing population, many farmers began to look for new ways to maximize crop production and minimize losses. One very popular solution came in the form of chemical pesticides. Pesticides, such as DDT, were used across the US for nearly any agricultural or home application. After all, what's the worst that could happen from spraying toxic chemicals on your food and in your home?

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It turns out using poisonous chemicals for pest control DOES have adverse effects. Rachel Carson, a biologist and author of many books, became a national sensation upon the publication of her novel exposing the potential dangers of DDT, Silent Spring. Carson prefaces her novel with graphic imagery of a town that has been destroyed by excess and negligent use of chemical pesticides. She then goes on to use her background in biology to explain the intricate interactions and life forms that exists in the ground, water, and everything in between. She emphasizes the importance of even the smallest of organisms and the role that they play in our survival. Carson used facts and statistics that illuminated the domino effect of targeting harmful pests with insecticides, noting that beneficial organisms were also severely impacted. The most notable connection that Carson drew was to the decline in the native bald eagle populations, as DDT that made its way down the food chain effected their ability to reproduce.

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Rachel Carson brought light to important concept that is often ignored for the sake of progress: everything we do has an effect, big or small, lasting or brief. When chemical pesticides first became popular, everybody rushed to use them, ignoring the potential side effects. It seems silly now to not consider the effects of poisonous chemicals on human health and the environment, but it was not until Rachel Caron's book that people even batted an eye. Carson brought about change that has had an impact on how we analyze the production and application of new products, especially with regards to the lasting effects on the environment. This has shaped environmental policy and made us more conscious of our individual impacts, helping us to think more about the future before immediate desires.

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President Nixon introduced the Endangered Species Act into law in 1973 after growing attention had been given to the protection of the natural environment, as well as its diverse plant and animal wildlife. This act serves to identify species which at risk of endangerment or extinction and protect them. This extends beyond the protection of individual species, allowing for the protection of critical habitats where certain species exist only in small numbers. This law has become one of the most important conservation and environmental protection laws in US history and has helped to preserve many species that contribute to the diverse wildlife only found in the US.

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Capitalizing on the anti-war movement of the 1960-70's, Senator Gaylord Nelson sparked the idea for the first Earth Day to bring attention to the negative effects of human wastefulness and industrialization on our planet. The idea exploded into a national demonstration amongst mainly young people across the US. Millions of people marched in the streets in protest of poor regulation of automobiles, fossil fuels, and pollution. The tradition has continued into the modern day and is celebrated annually on April 22. While many years have passed, many of the issues on which the holiday was founded are still relevant today.

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Love Canal is the name of a New York neighborhood near Niagara Falls that came under investigation after several residents reported suspicious health complications. The development was built near a canal that became the dumping site for thousands of tons of toxic chemical waste. Following a grueling investigative process and after many residents had already suffered serious birth and child-related illnesses, the companies that dumped the chemicals and local officials who failed to act more swiftly were held responsible. This disaster forced legislators to pass laws that force corporations to clean up their chemical waste and be held liable for damages caused by dumping.

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There are four federal agencies that manage approximately 95% of federal land across the US: the Forest Service, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Park Service, and the Bureau of Land Management. Each of these has different responsibilities in maintaining their respective jurisdictional areas. The Forest Service is responsible for maintaining all national forests and conducting forest research for protection and conservation. It is the only one of these agencies that is part of the US Department of Agriculture. The other three are included in the US Department of the Interior. The Bureau of Land Management is the largest of these departments, maintaining more than 244 million acres of land, 99.9% of which is in the western portion of the US. The National Park Service is tasked with preserving unique ecosystems and providing enjoyment of park recreation. The US Fish and Wildlife Service is the only department of these four that focuses specifically on the animal wildlife across the US. They are tasked with upholding the protection laws put into place and preserving precious species.

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Smokey the Bear, symbol of the US Forest Service

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Smokey Bear (now Smokey the Bear) was created in 1944 as a way to creatively bring awareness to the issue of forest fires across the US. At this point in time, many fires had broken out due to human causes. Smokey's original catchphrase was, "Only you can prevent forest fires", but was altered in 2001. His catchphase now reads, "Only you can prevent wildfires". This change was made with the hope to bring awareness to the fact that devastating fires can occur in places other than the forest, such as the desert.

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The spotted northern owl is a raptor species that is native to the Pacific Northwest Region of the US. This species has come under the national spotlight over the past few decades due to a drastic decrease in their population sizes. Originally, the cause of their population decline was unregulated logging in the Pacific Northwest. While the logging operations have since been limited and the native forests of the spotted owl are protected, a new threat has arisen. The barred owl, originally from the Eastern US has invaded the spotted owl's home. Because the barred owl is larger and has a higher reproduction rate, this species is slowly taking over the spotted owl's home region. Several agencies have been trying to address the problem through population control of the barred owl species. In fact, areas in which barred owl population control has taken place have seen a steady increase in the prevalence of spotted owls.

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Ding Darling Conservation Cartoon, circa 1930

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During the 1930's, a certain comic artist began to rise to fame as a political activist for conservation of natural resources. Ding Darling's depiction of common sights of resource abuse and environmental disasters gave his cartoons an aspect of relatability to anyone who read them. This in addition to the harsh realities of each depiction quickly made Darling's cartoons a national sensation.

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The USGS has been a leader in scientific innovation and natural resource data collection since 1879. Spanning from mineral resource identification to water resources conservation, the USGS has numerous roles in advancing our knowledge of the environment in which we preside. The organization's mission is to provide, "science for a changing world." In the modern era, this entails collection of data for the public use, intensive studies into cause and effect relationships with humans and our environment, and development of fundamental science that will allow us to understand our world much more clearly.

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The National Resource Conservation Service is another federal agency that is at the forefront of conservation efforts. The NRCS focuses heavily on agriculture and efficient use of resources in production of food. The NRCS works directly with farmers across the nation to help them understand how to best utilize their land and keep producing sustainably. The organization also aids in restoration programs to help restore damaged ecosystems and bring back healthy plant and animal wildlife diversity.

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The Arizona Game and Fish Department is a state agency that is responsible for maintaining and facilitating the growth of each and every wildlife species in the state. They constantly monitor the state and well being of different species and enact protection programs to maintain healthy population levels. With an increase in the human population in Arizona, it is also part of the AZGF responsibilities to maintain habitat linkages for different species whose native habitats have become fragmented. The AZGF supports state recreational activities as well, promoting fish and hunting licenses as means to financially support the organization as well as conservation efforts.

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After decades of expansion into the beautiful Sonoran Desert in Tucson, AZ, several local conservationists knew action needed to be taken to preserve the local landscape that drew so many people to the city. This group founded the Sonoran Desert Conservation Plan, a committee of local leaders and community members that would lead the way to one of the most successful conservation stories to date. The committee was founded on local community engagement, which provided a fair share of problems to begin with, but ultimately allowed for great success. Involvement from the community allowed for more comprehensive plans with widespread support, creating the best solution for all. This plan impacted zoning plans, city policy, and habitat protection.

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Once an area of filled with diverse wildlife, the Colorado River Delta in Baja California is one of the most heavily impacted ecosystems by human development. Before commercial agriculture practices took over the Southwestern US, the Colorado River connected to the sea, flowing with incomprehensible volumes of water. Due to intense water usage in traditional agricultural practices, the river barely flows into the Mexico. The Sonoran Institute has been working to restore the delta to its previous beauty and allow the wildlife to return. This project involves the purchase of rights to hundreds of thousands of acre-feet of water from the river as well as restoration of the habitat through revegetation. The restoration of this area will not only restore a dearly missed ecosystem, but also a way of life and connection to nature for the local community.

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As we learn more and more about our planets history, geologists and historians have developed ways to determine what may have been happening on Earth at almost any given age. Geologists have determined a method by which they classify time periods in Earth's history based on stratification, or rock layers. Each known era in Earth's history is defined by specific features in the Earth's layers. We are currently in the Holocene era, which began around 11,000 years ago and represents the 'new era' after the Ice Age. Over the past hundred years however, humans have made substantial impacts on the Earth in the oceans, on land, and in the air. The scale of the impacts has become the topic of debate amongst historians and geologists who are trying to decide whether we have entered a new age, the Anthropocene. The introduction of a new era is largely supported for political reasons. Many wish to acknowledge the impacts of humanity on the environment through this renaming and bring more attention to climate change. Geologists, however, note that there is not substantial evidence in the rock layers to suggest a change of era quite yet.

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With climate change becoming and ever more prevalent issue for new generations and those to come, much of mass media has begun promoting doom and gloom messages in regard to the state of the Earth. These messages consist of the negative impacts of climate change thus far as well as the future impacts of our path trajectory. While this style of messaging is effective in spreading awareness, it is debilitating to many. This is especially true of younger generations who are barely beginning to understand reality. While spreading the message of climate change is important, it is more important that we as a society are developing and inspiring the next generation of leaders in the process. There needs to be a shift towards hopeful advertising of the climate crisis and promotion of opportunities to be involved in the fight against it.

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Keystone XL: Beneficial to Some, Detrimental to All

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Keystone XL: Beneficial to Some, Detrimental to All

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The Keystone XL pipeline is an oil line that is proposed to run from southern Canada in to parts of the US. This particular pipeline is supposed to transport massive quantities of oil to decrease reliance on foreign oil companies and promote domestic trade. The construction of the pipeline would also open thousands of job opportunities across the US and Canada, creating a stronger economy. While the short-term economic benefits of this project are apparent, law-makers have a bad habit of only looking at the benefits of such projects and ignoring the harsh realities. The world is moving away from fossil fuel use for more sustainable forms of energy, including solar, wind, and hydroelectric. The completion of this pipeline would mean the more than double the current amount of oil would be pouring into the US economy to be used for energy production and expansion. This also means twice the probability of oil spills, pollution, and public health hazards.

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Desertification is a process that can happen both naturally and unnaturally in any environment. Desertification refers to the process by which vegetated land is turned into a desert. The result of this process is the creation of vast wastelands where sustainable life is few and far between, such as in the Sahara and Gobi Deserts. In many places around the world, human activity and land misuse has created a looming threat of desertification to once fertile lands. In the Gobi Desert of Asia, climate change combined with over farming is expanding the reach of the Gobi more and more everyday. This not only affects the climate of the region, but also the lives of those who call the Gobi home, making it more and more difficult to live. The main causes of desertification are deforestation, intensive agriculture, and over grazing.

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Wood is one of the most versatile and commonly used resource in the world. For as long as humans have roamed the Earth, wood has been used for everything from tools, to houses, and energy production. With the human population growing exponentially, our dependence on wood increases as well. While forests are abundant across the world, abuse of this resource through aggressive deforestation poses a number of hazards to the environment. Unsustainable deforestation practices not only remove carbon-scrubbing trees, but also contribute to global emissions and increase the risk of desertification of delicate ecosystems. Forest areas are replaced by urban societies and agricultural fields, both of which contribute heavily to global pollution.

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Since the first nation was formed, humans have been obsessed with expansion and land domination. It is no surprise that when technology enabled this to be done at a worrisome rate that urbanization of huge areas became common. Large cities encompass thousands of square miles and urban sprawl engulfs even more land on the outskirts of cities. Urbanization of natural areas presents several problems to the natural environment, including habitat loss, biodiversity loss, heat-island effects, pollution, limited access to resources, and increased poverty rates. Urbanization of huge areas is not sustainable as it exists and should require intensive planning to ensure greater sustainability going forward.

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Biodiversity is a term that gets thrown around by many who do not necessarily understand the importance of it. Biodiversity is exactly what the word itself implies. "Bio-" meaning life and "-diversity" meaning variety. Biodiversity is not only beneficial to individual ecosystems, but is an absolutely necessary part of all sustainable life on Earth. In almost all instances, the presence of diverse and abundant life in all shapes, forms and sizes creates a rich environment that works within itself to moderate and balance an ecosystem.
Over the past 200 years, the biodiversity across the world has fallen dramatically. This is the result of an explosive human population consuming more and more natural resources, as well as reshaping the natural environment to better suit our society needs and comforts. While this seems great for human evolution, it is actually quite the contrary. As biodiversity falls, humans will feel a very dramatic effect. We very heavily depend on biodiversity for our own lives on Earth.

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Invasive species are classified as any species who is not native or indigenous to a region. Invasive species are often brought to non-native habitats through non-natural means, such as deliberate or unintentional human transport. Invasive species can have ranging effects on the ecosystems to which they are introduced. The most common and troublesome are the negative effects, which occur much more frequently than positive or neutral effects. Invasive species typically disrupt the natural order of predation, which can have dramatic effects on delicate ecosystems. This results in the elimination of certain native species, and sometimes the elimination of the invasive species if they exhaust their food sources to an unsustainable level. The most prominent invasive species across the world are humans. Humans have been invading, altering, and destroying native habitats for as long as humans have been around. Maybe its time we look in the mirror and evaluate the consequences of our own actions as an invasive species.

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The half-earth project is a vision created by renowned biologist E.O. Wilson which seeks to create a sustainable environment that preserves natural habitats and biodiversity by protecting half of Earth's natural land and leaving the rest for human development. E.O. Wilson is regarded as perhaps the most accomplished biologist since Charles Darwin. He has traveled the world studying different interactions between wild species of animals, humans, and a mix of the two. His main focus was on different species of ants, which he frequently compared to humans. Despite widespread pessimism for a sustainable future where humans can coexist with our fellow organisms, Wilson provides bold optimism for the future. According to Wilson, by just protecting half of the Earth's natural habitats, we can preserve 85% of biodiversity and live in harmony. This is a very attainable goal and one that deserves more support across the world.

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The image above was taken by the Voyager 1 spacecraft from 4 billion miles away. Near the center of the image, we can see a pale blue spec. As Carl Sagan said, "That's here, that's home, that's us." Having an image such as this is very humbling. It puts into perspective not only our size in the universe, but also our aloneness. This small, blue rock is the only place that we call home, not as individuals, but as a species. There is no Planet B. It is of the utmost importance that we works together as a planet to conserve our home and its finite resources to ensure a sustainable future for our children and generations to come.

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We, as a species, only have once place to call home. Our planet is our most valuable resource. Since the beginning of human existence on Earth, people have stepped over one another remorselessly in the name of greed, power, and money. Until recent technological discovery, no human has been able to truly see our place as a spec of dust floating through the universe. Man's inability to see life through a larger lense has been the root cause of wars driven by greed and power over a fraction of rock hurtling through an endless expanse of nothing.
It is said that astronomy is a humbling and character building experience. I think that it is the hope of many astronomers and scientists around the world that sharing their knowledge of the Earth with respect to the universe that humans as a whole will come to cherish our home and respect one another as one and the same. There is only one way forward: together.

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Each one of the students in this class now has the background knowledge to springboard into a career of their choice with passion and care for the environment. There are many different avenues to chose from that combine both personal interest and passion for environmental protection. For example, the US forest service provides opportunities that are rich in outdoor experiences and actively work to protect recreational and preservation areas. For someone who enjoys being outside in nature, this is both personally and professionally fulfilling.
It is important for the future of our planet that we, the next generation of innovators and leaders, continue to be stewards of the environment and spread the message of the importance of conservation of natural resources.