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Mesocosm: small experimental area that is set up as an ecological experiment.

Can set up replicate mesocosms to test the effects of varying one or more conditions.

Also can be used to test the sustainability of the ecosystem. Must be sealed up with air, water and soil.

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Sustainable: can continue forever

Unsustainable: cannot be continued indefinitely (example: fossil fuels)

3 requirements for sustainability in ecosystems:

1.Nutrient availability (nutrient recycling)

2.Detoxification of waste products

3. Energy availability (cannot be recycled so a  continued supply of energy must be available usually via the Sun)

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Secondary consumers feed on Primary Consumers. EXP: Fox eating rabbit

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a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

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an organism that feeds on or derives nourishment from decaying organic matter. EXP: decomposers

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An animal that feeds on dead organic material. EXP:Worms ingesting dead organic matter into their gut

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As winter draws to a close, gardeners begin their spring migration into the outdoors, leaving winter dens behind and coming into contact with the harbingers of the shifting seasons: shovels, hoes and trowels. Oh, and earthworms.

Anyone prone to working the soil knows that upturning the earth exposes these shiny, wigging, pinkish-brownish tubular life forms, sending them thrashing in hasty retreat into the comforting, moist darkness of the soil.
Earthworms: A Garden's Friend of Foe? That depends.
Here are 10 things you may want to know about earthworms:

1. Earthworms come in a seemly infinite variety-around 6,000 species worldwide.

One of the most familiar of them, the sort you may see in your garden, is commonly known as the night crawler (it typically surfaces after dark), the angleworm (its makes popular bait for fishing) or the rain worm (it leaves waterlogged soil after storms).

2. Of the more than 180 earthworm species found in the U.S. and Canada, 60 are invasive species, brought over from the Old World, including the night crawler.

3. Lacking lungs or other specialized respiratory organs, earthworms breathe through their skin.

4. The skin exudes a lubricating fluid that makes moving through underground burrows easier and helps keep skin moist. One Australian species can shoot fluid as far as 12 inches through skin pores.

5. Each earthworm is both male and female, producing both eggs and sperm.

They mate on the surface of the earth, pressing their bodies together and exchanging sperm before separating. Later, the clitellum (a collar-like organ that goes around the worm's body the way a cigar band does a cigar) produces a ring around the worm. As the worm crawls out of the ring, it fills the ring with eggs and sperm. The ring drops off, seals shut at the ends and becomes a cocoon for the developing eggs.

6. Baby worms emerge from the eggs tiny but fully formed. They grow sex organs within the first two or three months of life and reach full size in about a year. They may live up to eight years, though one to two is more likely.

7. Full size for an earthworm varies among species, ranging from less than half an inch long to nearly 10 feet. The latter monsters don't occur in U.S. backyards-you'll have to go to the Tropics to see one of them. The homegrown versions top out at around 14 inches.

8. The glaciers that crawled across Canada into the northern tier of the lower 48 states during the most recent ice age wiped out earthworms in those areas.

In other parts of the U.S., you may find native earthworm species, but the worms living in the regions scoured by glaciers are invaders from overseas, brought here intentionally by early settlers on the assumption that the worms would improve the soil, or carried accidentally in shipments of plants or even in dirt used as ballast in ships.

9. The earthworm's digestive system is a tube running straight from the mouth, located at the tip of the front end of the body, to the rear of the body, where digested material is passed to the outside. Species vary in what they eat, but by and large their devouring of fallen leaves and/or soil allows the worms to move nutrients such as potassium and nitrogen into the soil.

Also, worm movements within the Earth create burrows that encourage the passage of air and a loosening of the soil. Good things, right? Well, maybe not. Which brings us to 10 ...

10. The northern forest evolved after the glaciers retreated, yielding an ecosystem that does not benefit from earthworms. These forests require a deep layer of slowly decomposing leaves and other organic matter called "duff" that overlays the soil. When earthworms invade these forests, they quickly eat up the duff, with the result that nutrients become less available to young, growing plants and the soil, instead of aerating and loosening, becomes more compact.

The combined effects of such developments have resulted in damage to trees such as sugar maples and to many forest herbs and understory plants, such as trillium, rare goblin ferns, trout lilies and other forest-floor species. In some areas, oak forests have been overrun by buckthorn, and in others the presence of earthworms has allowed the invasion of Japanese barberry.

As duff disappears, so do the insects and other small creatures that depend on it for survival, with the result that animals such as salamanders lose a key food source and face population declines. Earthworm burrows also may speed the passage of water through forest soil, another change that might be a benefit to farmland or a garden with compacted soil but that is a negative in a northern forest.

BONUS FACT

Although eradicating earthworms in areas they have already invaded is virtually impossible in practical terms (the measures that wipe out earthworms, such as spraying with pesticides, also kill many other species), we can all help protect as-yet un-invaded ecosystems by keeping worms out of such areas.

If you use earthworms for composting and live in a region near forests that have not been hit by earthworms, you can help by dropping use of the worms. Also, to avoid spreading earthworm eggs when fertilizing with composted materials, freeze your compost for at least a week before using it-freezing will kill eggs as well as the worms.

If you use earthworms for bait fishing, don't dump leftover worms onto the soil at the end of a day's fishing. Remove them from the site, or throw them far enough into a pond that they will die before they can reach to shore. When planting new shrubs or trees in your garden or yard, examine any Earth ball or potting soil for evidence of worms.

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As winter draws to a close, gardeners begin their spring migration into the outdoors, leaving winter dens behind and coming into contact with the harbingers of the shifting seasons: shovels, hoes and trowels. Oh, and earthworms.Anyone prone to working the soil knows that upturning the earth exposes ...

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A population is a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time

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Primary Consumers: Consumers that eat autotrophs, such as a rabbit eating a plant.

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Cute as they are, rabbits can do a lot of damage in the garden. Since there is always more than one rabbit, trapping is not a practical option. While there are some plants rabbits do not particularly like, they will eat anything if they get hungry enough. To keep rabbits from destroying your garden, you will need a combination of repellents, diversions, and barriers.

Rabbit Repellents

It would be nice if we could just figure out what rabbits avoid and place that throughout our yards. Repellents only work part of the time. If an animal is hungry or even too young to know better, it will munch on anything. However rabbits are somewhat picky, especially about a scent, and repellents can be quite effective.

Repellents will need to be applied repeatedly throughout the growing season, especially after a rain or following significant new plant growth. Common rabbit deterrents include home remedies like sprinkling plants with red pepper, garlic and onion powder, or talcum powder.

It's always a good idea to alternate repellents so that the rabbits do not get used to any scent or flavor. Rabbits do most of their feeding in the evening and into the night. To be most effective, apply deterrents at the end of the day.

Types of Deterrents

Fertilizer repellents: Blood meal and bone meal are natural soil amendments that make very good rabbit deterrents. Rabbits are herbivores, and the scent of these slaughterhouse by-products is usually enough for them to look elsewhere for food. Both are available as fertilizer, in garden centers. Blood meal is high in nitrogen. Bone meal is also a source of nitrogen and is high in phosphorous. They break down in the soil and will need to be applied every week or two.

Home remedies: There are many household products used as repellents, with mixed success, from human hair to black pepper.

Pets: Pets provide some deterrence, but rabbits may prefer to live near domesticated animals because it means they are relatively safe from the more dangerous wild animals. Still, a dog or cat will help keep the rabbit population in check.

Diversions and Habitat Modification

If rabbits are content with the food that is easily accessible to them, they won't be so persistent about getting into your flowers and vegetables. A rabbit favorite you can easily provide is clover. Overseeding your lawn with clover will provide them a ready source of food and it will even feed your lawn since it is a legume and fixes nitrogen. Clover seed is often available next to the grass seed.

Modifying your yard to make it less hospitable for rabbits is not practical for most of us. It would involve removing or reducing overgrown areas where the rabbits can find cover. That could be around fencing or along the hedging or other large structures. Rabbits will also seek cover under staircases and porches.

Fencing and Other Barriers

Many favorite rabbit plants can be found in the vegetable garden. They are particularly fond of tender young shoots and dark, leafy greens. If you have a problem with rabbits, you are going to need to fence in your vegetable garden.

Rabbit Fencing Tips:

Rabbits will chew right through plastic and fiberglass fencing. Go with metal.

A coated metal is easy to work with and lasts longer than non-galvanized fencing, which will rust.

The hole openings should be no more than 1-inch wide.

Height of 2-3 feet will deter them.

Bend the bottom of the fencing at a 90-degree angle, facing outward, and bury it 3-6 inches deep,

Rabbits can squeeze under gates. Put a flashing of fence at the base of the gate.

Do not leave the gate open while you are in your garden. They will be happy to hide out until you leave.

Protecting Free Standing Trees and Shrubs

Rabbits will gnaw on woody plants, like blueberries and hydrangeas, especially in the winter. They will also girdle young trees and shrubs, chewing the bark down to the heartwood in a circle near the base of the tree. This opens the tree to disease and insect infestation and can effectively kill a young tree. To protect freestanding plants, encircle them with two- to four-foot-high fencing. You don't have to bury it, but make sure there is no access at ground level. And keep the fencing several inches from the trunk of the plant.

Remember that snow cover will allow the rabbits to reach higher up on the plants. If you routinely get several feet of snow, make your fencing higher.

Most Popular Rabbit Plants

Rabbits have wide-ranging tastes and there are many plants they will nibble on. In my yard, pansies, hydrangeas, blueberry stems, pea plants, bean plants, young pepper plants, beet greens and Swiss chard are the most favored plants, besides clover and violets.

Rabbit Scram has an extensive list of plants damaged by rabbits, from the plants they eat most often to the ones they visit occasionally.

Plants Rabbits Tend to Avoid

This is a tricky one. The University of Illinois Extension has a list of plants least browsed by rabbits and it doesn't include any vegetables. Here are some of the herbs and flowers they list: lobelia, snapdragons, petunias, astilbe, columbine, iris, peony, purple coneflower, basil, chives, oregano, rosemary and sage, buddleia, lantana, lavender, and viburnum. Keep in mind that while the rabbit may not eat your oregano, she may find it's strong fragrance the perfect place to disguise her nest from predators.

Of course, animals are unpredictable, so you will have to pay close attention to what happens in your yard and take action accordingly.

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It's not just carrots that rabbits love. They will eat flowers, branches and much more. Learn all about rabbit control in the garden.

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It is the nutrition obtained by basically making your own food
EXP: plant preforming photosynthesis

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There are numerous species of plants all over the world. Some have adapted to desert conditions while other have adapted to cold climates. There are also plants that could only survive in cool, moist areas with adequate sunlight. These differences in climatic conditions and ecosystems have resulted in different types of photosynthesis in plants. The three types of photosynthesis are C3, C4 and CAM photosynthesis.

The definition of photosynthesis and the general equation can be found under Overview of Photosynthesis.

Plants perform photosynthesis because it generates the food and energy they need for growth and cellular respiration. It is important to note that not all plants photosynthesize. Some are parasites and simply attach themselves to other plants and feed from them.

For plants to perform photosynthesis they require light energy from the sun, water and carbon dioxide. Water is absorbed from the soil into the cells of roots. The water passes from the root system to the xylem vessels in the stem until it reaches the leaves. Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere through pores in the leaves called stomata. The leaves also contain chloroplasts which hold chlorophyll. The sun's energy is captured by the chlorophyll.

Leaves are essential for the well-being of plants. Most of the reactions involved in the process of photosynthesis take place in the leaves. The diagram below shows the cross section of a typical plant leaf.

Structure of Plant Leaves
The typical plant leaf includes the following

Upper and lower epidermis - the upper epidermis is the outer layer of the cells that controls the amount of water that is lost through transpiration.

Stomata - these are pores (holes) in the leaves that are responsible for the exchange of gases between the plant leaves and the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere and oxygen is released.

Mesophyll - these are photosynthetic (parenchyma) cells that are located between the upper and lower epidermis. These cells contain the chloroplasts.

Vascular bundle - these are tissues that form part of the transport system of the plant. Vascular bundles consist of xylem and phloem vessels which transport water, dissolved minerals and food to and from the leaves.

Process of Photosynthesis (step-by-step)

The light-dependent reactions and the Calvin Cycle are the two main stages of photosynthesis in plants.
Light-dependent Reactions
The first stage of photosynthesis is the light dependent reactions. These reactions take place on the thylakoid membrane inside the chloroplast. During this stage light energy is converted to ATP (chemical energy) and NADPH (reducing power).

Light is absorbed by two Photosystems called Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII). These protein complexes contain light harvesting chlorophyll molecules and accessory pigments called antenna complexes. The photosystems are also equipped with reactions centers (RC). These are complexes of proteins and pigments which are responsible for energy conversion. The chlorophyll molecules of PSI absorb light with a peak wavelength of 700nm and are called P700 molecules. The chlorophyll molecules of PSII absorb light with a peak wavelength of 68Onm and are called P68O molecules.

The light dependent reactions begin in PSII.

A photon of light is absorbed by a P680 chlorophyll molecule in the light harvesting complex of PSII.

The energy that is generated from the light is passed from one P680 chlorophyll molecule to another until it reaches the reaction center (RC) of PSII.

At the RC is a pair of P680 chlorophyll molecules. An electron in the chlorophyll molecules becomes excited as a result of a higher level of energy. The excited electron becomes unstable and is released. Another electron is released following the capture of another photon of light by the light harvesting complex and the transfer of energy to the reaction center.

The electrons are transported in a chain of protein complexes and mobile carriers called an electron transport chain (ETC). Plastoquinone is the mobile carrier that transports the electrons from the reaction center of PSII to the Cytochrome b6f Complex as shown in the diagram above.

The electrons lost from PSII are replaced by splitting water with light in a process called Photolysis. Water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis and is split into electrons (e-), hydrogen ions (H+, protons) and oxygen (O2). The hydrogen ions and oxygen are released into the thylakoid lumen. Oxygen is later released into the atmosphere as a by-product of photosynthesis.

While the electrons pass through the ETC via Plastoquinone, hydrogen ions (protons) from the stroma are also tranferred and released into the thylakoid lumen. This results in a higher concentration of hydrogen ions (proton gradient) in the lumen.

As a result of the proton gradient in the lumen, hydrogen ions are transferred to ATP synthase and provide the energy needed for combining ADP and Pi to produce ATP.

Cytochrome b6f transfers the electrons to Plastocyanin which then transports them to Photosystem I.

The electrons have now arrived at PSI.

They again receive energy, but this time from light absorbed by P700 chlorophyll molecules.

The electrons are transferred to mobile carrier, ferredoxin.

They are then transported to ferredixin NADP reductase (FNR), which is the final electron acceptor. At this point the electrons and a hydrogen ion are combined with NADP+ to produce NADPH.

The lost electrons from PSI are replaced by electrons from PSII via the electron transport chain.

Summary of Light-dependent Reactions
Flow of Electrons
Photosystem II --> b6-f complex --> Photosystem I --> NADP reductase
Role of Photolysis
Utilizes light to split water into the following:

Electrons - donated to PSII to replace lost electrons

Hydrogen ions - carried to ATP synthase to provide energy for the production of ATP

Oxygen - released into the atmosphere as a by-product

Products

ATP - chemical energy

NADPH - reducing power/electron donor

Light-dependent Reactions Animation The Calvin Cycle
The second stage of photosynthesis is the Calvin Cycle. These reactions occur in the stroma of the chloroplast. Energy from ATP and electrons from NADPH are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose and other products.

One molecule of carbon dioxide is combined with one molecule of Ribulose Bisphosphate (RuBP). It is important to note that RuBP is a 5-carbon molecule. When it is combined with CO2 the reaction produces an unstable 6-carbon intermediate.

The unstable 6-carbon intermediate quickly breaks down to form two 3-carbon molecules known as 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA).

The two 3-phosphoglycerate molecules receive energy from ATP and produce two molecules of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPGA).

An electron from NADPH is combined with each 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate molecule to produce two molecules of Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P).

Two Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate molecules are needed to make one molecule of glucose.

The next important step in the cycle is to regenerate RuBP. The problem is there is not enough G3P. We only ran the cycle once with one molecule of CO2 and one molecule of RuBP. Only two molecules of G3P were produced. We still need an additional ten molecules of G3P for the cycle to continue.

If you take another look at the photosynthesis equation you will notice that six molecules of carbon dioxide (6CO2) are needed for the process of photosynthesis.

These six molecules of CO2 must be used to produce twelve G3Ps. This means that the steps above would have to be repeated five more times to produce ten additional molecules of G3P.

Two molecules of G3P will be used to produce glucose and the other ten will be used for the regeneration of RuBP.

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There are numerous species of plants all over the world. Some have adapted to desert conditions while other have adapted to cold climates. There are also plants that could only survive in cool, moist areas with adequate sunlight. These differences in climatic conditions and ecosystems have resulted in different types of photosynthesis in plants.

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interbreeding is when 2 members of the same species mate to produce fertile offspring

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Heterotrophic nutrition is the nutrition obtained by digesting organic compounds

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Species are groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring. :

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A Comunity is formed by different populations from different species living in the same area