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Gunther Kress theorised that children's early writing exhibits many features of spoken language

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Graves (1979) identifies self-correction as a significant marker of progression

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Gunther Kress has pointed out how children take a pride in their writing and exercise considerable creativity in letters that “make meaning”.

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Theorists including Graves have suggested that writing should be seen as process rather than product

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As children grow in skill, they develop editing, redrafting, and self-evaluative skills

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Some rules are absolute, others are stylistic

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Prosodic guide when reading aloud

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Demarcates boundaries and indicates moods

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It has evolved over time as writing has diverged from speech

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It is not essential to writing, and it is not an aspect of spoken discourse

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...is not grammar

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5. Conventional: most words spelled correctly

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4. Transitional: combine phonic knowledge with memorised patterns and rules

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3. Phonetic: understand grapheme-phoneme correspondence

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2. Semi-phonetic: recognise grapheme-phoneme correspondence

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1. Pre-phonemic: scribbling, mock handwriting, mock letters

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Pre-existing knowledge of morphology, etc.

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Technology

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Trial and error - looks right?

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Analogy

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Salient sounds

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Over/under-generalisation

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Phonetic spelling

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Transposition (reversal)

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Substitution

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Omission

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Insertion

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Homophones are tricky

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Split digraph: graphemes representing a long vowel sound which are split by a consonant (i.e. magic e), e.g make

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Digraph: 2 letters representing 1 phoneme, e.g. 'th' or 'sh'

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44 phonemes, 26 graphemes

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Not phonetic

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3. Transactional: develops when speech disassociated from writing; academic, objective, formal, impersonal style; third person

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2. Poetic: creative; crafting and shaping language; phonological and descriptive devices

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1. Expressive: first person perspective; based on speech

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Child may find first two easier, because they are subjective and egocentric. The final two require a third person voice

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d) Narrative: story genre; orientation + complication + resolution + coda (Labov)

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c) Report: factual, objective

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b) Recount: subjective account of recent event; chronological; orientation + event + reorientation

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a) Observation and evaluative comment

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Martin et al. (1976): half of all writing in school had examiner as primary audience. Writing not considered part of learning process, but rather an indicator that learning has taken place

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Caregiver won't correct too much to avoid demotivating

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Caregiver may write interpretation underneath to validate scribbles

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7. Correct spelling

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6. Appropriate/phonetic spelling

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5. Invented spelling

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4. Conventional letters

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3. Mock letters

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2. Mock handwriting

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1. Scribbling

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4. Integration (12+): makes conscious stylistic choices. Develops personal writing style.

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3. Differentiation (<9): writing diverges from speech. Increasing complexity.

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2. Consolidation (<6): writing reflects speech patterns

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1. Preparation: basic motor and orthographic skills develop

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- Not simply ancillary
- Organise thinking
- TRIPE
- Creativity
- Preserve

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Purpose of writing

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Lineation, ascenders, descenders

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Directionality

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Motor skills

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Consistent font size

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Capitalisation

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Cursive handwriting

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Combining words in cohesive discourse structure

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Personal voice

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Understanding difference between spoken and written language

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Controlling register according to GAP

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'Sense of audience' (Crystal)

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Demands awareness of and an ability to manipulate all linguistic methods