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Brexit: a new chapter in the history of the United Kingdom and the European Union

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Brexit: a new chapter in the history of the United Kingdom and the European Union

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The United Kingdom left the European Union — now an economic and political partnership of 27 countries — on January 31, 2020 under the terms of a negotiated divorce deal, bringing to an end 47 years of British membership of the EU and the institutions that preceded it.

"Brexit" — the term used to describe Britain's EU departure — represents the most important constitutional shake-up the UK has known since it joined the six-nation European Economic Community in 1973. It is also the first time the European institution has lost a member.

An image representing the divide caused by Brexit

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The fall of the Berlin Wall: a turning point for Europe

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The fall of the Berlin Wall: a turning point for Europe

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The collapse of the ‘Iron Curtain’ and the opening of the borders of Eastern Europe induced new migration flows across Europe. Countries which received the highest number of asylum applications from the 1990’s were France, Germany, Sweden and the United Kingdom respectively. In more recent years, the European Union has created the ‘Blue Card Scheme’ to actively attract highly skilled workers to the EU. This is now something which does not apply to the UK since they left the European Union in what has become known as ‘Brexit’.

An image showing when the Berlin Wall came down

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Notting Hill Carnival: an event which came from tragedy but which now celebrates diversity and heritage 

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Notting Hill Carnival: an event which came from tragedy but which now celebrates diversity and heritage 

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A Caribbean Carnival was held to try and improve race relations in 1959, later becoming the Notting Hill Carnival. The first carnival attracted around 50 people. As of 2019, around 2 million people took part in the celebrations.

Watch this video to learn more about the carnival:

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Notting Hill Carnival 2020: Europe's biggest street party goes online

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Housing inequality: learn more about the difficulties of housing inequality in Britain

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Housing inequality: learn more about the difficulties of housing inequality in Britain

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Housing in London was in short supply following the bombing during the Blitz, and some Caribbean arrivals faced hostility for "taking" homes, or racism from Londoners who didn't want to live near black people. Predatory landlords charged Commonwealth citizens as much as double the rent of white residents in Notting Hill, and crammed them into slum-like conditions. Racism rooted in fear and mistrust erupted into violence in Notting Hill in 1958, when gangs of Teddy Boys roamed the streets attacking Black men (and murdering one, Kelso Cochrane from Antigua.) Although many have spent most of their lives here, some of these individuals have been threatened with deportation if they cannot prove their right to remain in Britain. In 2009 the Home Office destroyed the passenger records of the Windrush, meaning it is impossible for some individuals to now prove they are in the UK “legally”.

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Skip to main content

22 June 2018 marked the 70th anniversary of the arrival of the ship Empire Windrush at Tilbury Dock, Essex, the beginning of a new chapter in the story of London. The 802 Caribbean citizens onboard were the first of 500,000 Commonwealth citizens who settled in Britain between 1948 and 1971. They were invited to live as British citizens and help rebuild the "mother country", but many faced prejudice and unequal treatment that continues until today.

Alwyn Collinson

Digital Editor

18 June 2018

Transcript

So how long did the journey take that time?
Sam King: Three weeks. We left on the 24th of May, which was Empire Day, and arrived in Tilbury on the 22nd of June. Now, the reason why we took so long, after a while out of Jamaica officially the boat developed engine trouble and we had to go in to Bermuda for three days. We don't believe in English. I being born in the Colonies, if the English man told me something I am not going to accept it I'm not bright, but I'm not stupid. History told me that. We felt, and the newspaper anyway said it, that they didn't want us. And they were trying to find a way in Parliament to stop us, but legally they could not. So we stayed about two and a half days in Bermuda. So we left on the 24th in May and arrived the 22nd of June.

Empire Windrush: from Nazi troopship to symbol of change

Transcript

Try and get to the background, Jamaica is a colony. Boats do not leave from Jamaica to England apart from banana boats. Banana boats carry about 15, 20 passengers. They are normally students going to university, top fliers or civil servants going backward and forward. The average man do not come to rule. The average man do not get a chance to go on their own. And that's what happened in the colonies. But by the grace of God, the Empire Windrush had taken immigrants from England to Australia, and had some British troops coming to Jamaica. Now we were ex-servicemen we would like to join the service in Jamaica but you can't, because you're from the colonies. They took certain men from England to come to Jamaica. But that troop ship had berth for about four, or call it five hundred people. And it was the first time in history you ever had a ship leaving Jamaica with about five hundred troop deck or berth.

This picture shows the Windrush in 1930, docked at the Port of London under the name Monte Rosa. Originally a German cruise ship, the ship was seized by the Nazi regime and used to transport troops during the Second World War. She was captured by the British at the end of the war and renamed the Empire Windrush. In 1948, she happened to stop over at Kingston, Jamaica, to pick up some British servicemen. Since the ship was not full, passage was offered to Britain for £28- if you travelled in the uncomfortable open berths of the "troop deck". Even this was a lot of money to the average Jamaican: Sam King remembers it as five weeks' wages, or about the cost of three cows.

People took passage on the Empire Windrush for many reasons: some were seeking employment in Britain, others hoped to rejoin the Army or Royal Air Force. Many simply had deep curiosity about the "mother country". Sam King described his desire to raise his children in a country with greater educational opportunities: "I didn't want one of my children to be born in a colony."

The Empire Windrush's arrival on 22 June 1948 marked the beginning of a period of migration that would eventually see over 500,000 Commonwealth citizens settle in Britain between 1948 and 1971. This is now referred to as the 'Windrush generation'. Even at the time Londoners saw it as a significant moment. Journalists and film crews crowded Tilbury Docks, although a sign on the ship warned passengers not to talk to reporters.

(Windrush segment starts 45 seconds in.)

One famous moment that has captured the spirit of the Windrush in song was a recording by Pathé news of the Trinidadian Calypso singer Aldwin Roberts (aka "Lord Kitchener"). He performed the specially-written song "London Is the Place for Me" live. His song most famously was played at the end of the first Paddington film in 2014.

Mixed reception

Transcript

What happened when the Empire Windrush docked?
Sam King: All right. About a day out they arrived they realized that we are going to dock and give the British their due they are reasonable fair. Once they had realized that we were going to land we were told that people who had somewhere to go - Go. The people who did not have anywhere to go they would provide accommodation at Clapham deep shelter. As it worked out it was a Jamaican Brian ... oh ... call him Brian who were in England who went to the Colonial Office and said look these people had nowhere to go. They seeking work you have to do something. And from what I can give the British authorities they came up, they send coaches to the docks at Tilbury and said if you had nowhere to go they didn't encourage you if you had nowhere to go you could come to Clapham deep shelter and you will a bed and a blanket or whatever it is. And they did that. Once we arrived in England and we knew that everything was all right it wasn't plain sailing.

Transcript

Were you looking for somewhere to buy or to rent or ...
Sam King: Oh no, no. No, no. Not rent. You couldn't get a place to rent. You're a black man you knock on a door they...You have an ad. I'm not trying to say you wouldn't get one. And there's a room at Stockwell for rent you go, Good afternoon madam there's a room for rent - Sorry no blacks. There's nothing you can do.

2018: commemoration and controversy

The Windrush generation has recently made headlines again: not for commemorative reasons but due to issues with the law relating to their immigration status. Despite being British citizens on arrival in the UK (many from colonies that were not yet independent countries), and having the support of the law and government at the time of their arrival, some of the Windrush generation or their descendants do not have proof of citizenship that satisfies subsequent governments.

Although many have spent most of their lives here, some of these individuals have been threatened with deportation if they cannot prove their right to remain in Britain. In 2009 the Home Office destroyed the passenger records of the Windrush, meaning it is impossible for some individuals to now prove they are in the UK "legally".

150,000 people have called for an "amnesty" for those arriving between 1948 and 1971. Patrick Vernon, who created the petition, states: "As a country, we don't recognise the Windrush generation's contribution... their art and politics had a major impact on the community". This too is not without controversy. David Lammy, Labour MP and the son of Guyanese passengers on the Windrush, has said that the term amnesty is offensive as it implies wrongdoing on the part of the passengers.

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How did the Empire Windrush change London? | Museum of London

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Why was the Empire Windrush's arrival so significant? To mark the 70th anniversary, we discuss the impact of the ship's arrival at Tilbury Dock, Essex.

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The Hundred Foot Journey: originally a book dedicated to showing race relations between two seemingly very different people

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The Hundred Foot Journey: originally a book dedicated to showing race relations between two seemingly very different people

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The Hundred-Foot Journey is about how the hundred-foot distance between a new Indian kitchen and a traditional French one can represent the gulf between different cultures and desires. It was originally written by Richard C. Morais, but was later adapted into a film.

Watch the trailer here

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The Hundred-Foot Journey Official Trailer #1 (2014) - Helen Mirren Movie HD

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Bend it Like Beckham: watch a film which depicts life as an Indian girl in London

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Bend it Like Beckham: watch a film which depicts life as an Indian girl in London

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The film Bend it Like Beckham tells the story of Jess Bhamra, the daughter of a strict Indian couple in London, is not permitted to play organized soccer, even though she is 18. When Jess is playing for fun one day, her impressive skills are seen by Jules Paxton, who then convinces Jess to play for her semi-pro team. Jess uses elaborate excuses to hide her matches from her family while also dealing with her romantic feelings for her coach, Joe. This film showcases some cultural difficulties between different generations of Indian descendants, whilst touching on women’s issues of inclusion in football.

Watch the trailer here

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BEND IT LIKE BECKHAM (2002) - Official Movie Trailer

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Migration from the Asian continent to the United Kingdom: a period of great change in Britain 

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Migration from the Asian continent to the United Kingdom: a period of great change in Britain 

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One significant community of migrants which came to Britain after the Second World War were people from Pakistan.  8They mostly found employment in the textile industries of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Manchester and Bradford, cars and engineering factories in the  West Midlands, and Birmingham, and  growing light industrial estates in places like Luton and Slough.  After the Mangla dam was building 1966 which submerged large parts of the Mirpur district, emigration from that area accelerated.

Other groups who migrated from Pakistan in the 1960s include Punjabis who mainly settled in Glasgow, Birmingham and Southall in London, and migrants from urban areas who were more likely to be professionals and who worked for the NHS.

Numerous references to this integration have been represented in films. Examples include Bend it Like Beckham and The Hundred Foot Journey.

Find out more about the British Pakistani community here:

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The British Nationality Act: an act of parliament with wide-reaching effects

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The British Nationality Act: an act of parliament with wide-reaching effects

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Jumping forward through history to the British Nationality Act 1948, people from Jamaica and Barbados, and others living in Commonwealth countries, were allowed full rights of entry and settlement, to help rebuild the British economy after the Second World War. The shortage of labour encouraged industries like British Rail and the National Health Service to heavily recruit from the Caribbean. These were the first of 500,000 Commonwealth citizens, such as Jamaicans, Pakistanis and Indians, who settled in Britain between 1948 and 1971. Despite having equal rights to British citizenship, new arrivals from the Commonwealth faced prejudice and abuse. On 22 June 1948, HMT Empire Windrush was the first ship to bring immigrants from Jamaica to the United Kingdom. 11 members of Parliament wrote to the government after the Windrush's arrival, complaining about "coloured" immigration. Afro-Caribbean Londoners were sometimes denied employment, housing, and even turned away from churches, pubs and dancehalls.

Listen to audio clips from a passenger aboard the ‘Windrush’:

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Skip to main content

22 June 2018 marked the 70th anniversary of the arrival of the ship Empire Windrush at Tilbury Dock, Essex, the beginning of a new chapter in the story of London. The 802 Caribbean citizens onboard were the first of 500,000 Commonwealth citizens who settled in Britain between 1948 and 1971. They were invited to live as British citizens and help rebuild the "mother country", but many faced prejudice and unequal treatment that continues until today.

Alwyn Collinson

Digital Editor

18 June 2018

Transcript

So how long did the journey take that time?
Sam King: Three weeks. We left on the 24th of May, which was Empire Day, and arrived in Tilbury on the 22nd of June. Now, the reason why we took so long, after a while out of Jamaica officially the boat developed engine trouble and we had to go in to Bermuda for three days. We don't believe in English. I being born in the Colonies, if the English man told me something I am not going to accept it I'm not bright, but I'm not stupid. History told me that. We felt, and the newspaper anyway said it, that they didn't want us. And they were trying to find a way in Parliament to stop us, but legally they could not. So we stayed about two and a half days in Bermuda. So we left on the 24th in May and arrived the 22nd of June.

Empire Windrush: from Nazi troopship to symbol of change

Transcript

Try and get to the background, Jamaica is a colony. Boats do not leave from Jamaica to England apart from banana boats. Banana boats carry about 15, 20 passengers. They are normally students going to university, top fliers or civil servants going backward and forward. The average man do not come to rule. The average man do not get a chance to go on their own. And that's what happened in the colonies. But by the grace of God, the Empire Windrush had taken immigrants from England to Australia, and had some British troops coming to Jamaica. Now we were ex-servicemen we would like to join the service in Jamaica but you can't, because you're from the colonies. They took certain men from England to come to Jamaica. But that troop ship had berth for about four, or call it five hundred people. And it was the first time in history you ever had a ship leaving Jamaica with about five hundred troop deck or berth.

This picture shows the Windrush in 1930, docked at the Port of London under the name Monte Rosa. Originally a German cruise ship, the ship was seized by the Nazi regime and used to transport troops during the Second World War. She was captured by the British at the end of the war and renamed the Empire Windrush. In 1948, she happened to stop over at Kingston, Jamaica, to pick up some British servicemen. Since the ship was not full, passage was offered to Britain for £28- if you travelled in the uncomfortable open berths of the "troop deck". Even this was a lot of money to the average Jamaican: Sam King remembers it as five weeks' wages, or about the cost of three cows.

People took passage on the Empire Windrush for many reasons: some were seeking employment in Britain, others hoped to rejoin the Army or Royal Air Force. Many simply had deep curiosity about the "mother country". Sam King described his desire to raise his children in a country with greater educational opportunities: "I didn't want one of my children to be born in a colony."

The Empire Windrush's arrival on 22 June 1948 marked the beginning of a period of migration that would eventually see over 500,000 Commonwealth citizens settle in Britain between 1948 and 1971. This is now referred to as the 'Windrush generation'. Even at the time Londoners saw it as a significant moment. Journalists and film crews crowded Tilbury Docks, although a sign on the ship warned passengers not to talk to reporters.

(Windrush segment starts 45 seconds in.)

One famous moment that has captured the spirit of the Windrush in song was a recording by Pathé news of the Trinidadian Calypso singer Aldwin Roberts (aka "Lord Kitchener"). He performed the specially-written song "London Is the Place for Me" live. His song most famously was played at the end of the first Paddington film in 2014.

Mixed reception

Transcript

What happened when the Empire Windrush docked?
Sam King: All right. About a day out they arrived they realized that we are going to dock and give the British their due they are reasonable fair. Once they had realized that we were going to land we were told that people who had somewhere to go - Go. The people who did not have anywhere to go they would provide accommodation at Clapham deep shelter. As it worked out it was a Jamaican Brian ... oh ... call him Brian who were in England who went to the Colonial Office and said look these people had nowhere to go. They seeking work you have to do something. And from what I can give the British authorities they came up, they send coaches to the docks at Tilbury and said if you had nowhere to go they didn't encourage you if you had nowhere to go you could come to Clapham deep shelter and you will a bed and a blanket or whatever it is. And they did that. Once we arrived in England and we knew that everything was all right it wasn't plain sailing.

Transcript

Were you looking for somewhere to buy or to rent or ...
Sam King: Oh no, no. No, no. Not rent. You couldn't get a place to rent. You're a black man you knock on a door they...You have an ad. I'm not trying to say you wouldn't get one. And there's a room at Stockwell for rent you go, Good afternoon madam there's a room for rent - Sorry no blacks. There's nothing you can do.

2018: commemoration and controversy

The Windrush generation has recently made headlines again: not for commemorative reasons but due to issues with the law relating to their immigration status. Despite being British citizens on arrival in the UK (many from colonies that were not yet independent countries), and having the support of the law and government at the time of their arrival, some of the Windrush generation or their descendants do not have proof of citizenship that satisfies subsequent governments.

Although many have spent most of their lives here, some of these individuals have been threatened with deportation if they cannot prove their right to remain in Britain. In 2009 the Home Office destroyed the passenger records of the Windrush, meaning it is impossible for some individuals to now prove they are in the UK "legally".

150,000 people have called for an "amnesty" for those arriving between 1948 and 1971. Patrick Vernon, who created the petition, states: "As a country, we don't recognise the Windrush generation's contribution... their art and politics had a major impact on the community". This too is not without controversy. David Lammy, Labour MP and the son of Guyanese passengers on the Windrush, has said that the term amnesty is offensive as it implies wrongdoing on the part of the passengers.

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How did the Empire Windrush change London? | Museum of London

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Why was the Empire Windrush's arrival so significant? To mark the 70th anniversary, we discuss the impact of the ship's arrival at Tilbury Dock, Essex.

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The True Born Englishman: discover a poem which has stood the test of time about racism

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The True Born Englishman: discover a poem which has stood the test of time about racism

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Daniel Defoe wrote a ‘vigorous and witty poem The True-Born Englishman’, published in 1701. It was very popular at the time and remains so today. It is relevant in how it exposes many of the ‘fallacies of racial prejudice’.  The poem's declared target is not ‘Englishness’ as such, but English cultural xenophobia against the cultural disturbance caused by immigration. Defoe's argument was that the English nation was a product of various incoming European ethnic groups, from Ancient Britons to Anglo-Saxons, Normans and beyond. It was therefore absurd to abuse newer arrivals. This sentiment still has relevance in Britain today, as we can see in examples of legislation such as the British Nationality Act of 1948.

Read the full poem here

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Thus from a mixture of all kinds began,

That het'rogeneous thing, an Englishman:

In eager rapes, and furious lust begot,

Betwixt a painted Britain and a Scot.

Whose gend'ring off-spring quickly learn'd to bow,

And yoke their heifers to the Roman plough:

From whence a mongrel half-bred race there came,

With neither name, nor nation, speech nor fame.

In whose hot veins new mixtures quickly ran,

Infus'd betwixt a Saxon and a Dane.

While their rank daughters, to their parents just,

Receiv'd all nations with promiscuous lust.

This nauseous brood directly did contain

The well-extracted blood of Englishmen.

Which medly canton'd in a heptarchy,

A rhapsody of nations to supply,

Among themselves maintain'd eternal wars,

And still the ladies lov'd the conquerors.

The western Angles all the rest subdu'd;

A bloody nation, barbarous and rude:

Who by the tenure of the sword possest

One part of Britain, and subdu'd the rest

And as great things denominate the small,

The conqu'ring part gave title to the whole.

The Scot, Pict, Britain, Roman, Dane, submit,

And with the English-Saxon all unite:

And these the mixture have so close pursu'd,

The very name and memory's subdu'd:

No Roman now, no Britain does remain;

Wales strove to separate, but strove in vain:

The silent nations undistinguish'd fall,

And Englishman's the common name for all.

Fate jumbled them together, God knows how;

What e'er they were they're true-born English now.

The wonder which remains is at our pride,

To value that which all wise men deride.

For Englishmen to boast of generation,

Cancels their knowledge, and lampoons the nation.

A true-born Englishman's a contradiction,

In speech an irony, in fact a fiction.

A banter made to be a test of fools,

Which those that use it justly ridicules.

A metaphor invented to express

A man a-kin to all the universe.

For as the Scots, as learned men ha' said,

Throughout the world their wand'ring seed ha' spread;

So open-handed England, 'tis believ'd,

Has all the gleanings of the world receiv'd.

Some think of England 'twas our Saviour meant,

The Gospel should to all the world be sent:

Since, when the blessed sound did hither reach,

They to all nations might be said to preach.

'Tis well that virtue gives nobility,

How shall we else the want of birth and blood supply?

Since scarce one family is left alive,

Which does not from some foreigner derive.

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from The True Born Englishman by Daniel Defoe | Poetry Foundation

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Thus from a mixture of all kinds began, That het'rogeneous thing, an Englishman: In eager rapes, and furious lust begot, Betwixt a painted Britain and a Scot. Whose gend'ring off-spring quickly learn'd to bow, And yoke their heifers to the Roman plough: From whence a mongrel half-bred race there came, With neither name, nor nation, speech nor fame.

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Robinson Crusoe and Friday: an important depiction of a non-white individual in literature

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Robinson Crusoe and Friday: an important depiction of a non-white individual in literature

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When Defoe wrote Robinson Crusoe, a German critic called it a “world-book,” a label justified not only by the enormous number of translations, imitations, and adaptations that have appeared but by the almost mythic power with which Defoe creates a hero and a situation with which every reader can in some sense identify. The character, Friday, is probably the first non-white character to be given a realistic, individualized, and humane portrayal in the English novel and has a huge literary and cultural importance. If Crusoe represents the first colonial mind in fiction, then Friday represents not just a Caribbean tribesman, but all the natives of America, Asia, and Africa who would later be oppressed in the age of European imperialism.

In 1997 Robinson Crusoe was adapted into a film starring James Bond actor, Pierce Brosnan. It is inspired by his novel rather than being a true reflection of all the themes within the book.

Watch the trailer here:

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Daniel Defoe (1660 – 1731): a famous author who documented inter-racial dynamics in a novel for the first time

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Daniel Defoe (1660 – 1731): a famous author who documented inter-racial dynamics in a novel for the first time

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Daniel Defoe was an English novelist. At the age of 59 Defoe embarked on what was virtually a new career, producing in Robinson Crusoe the first of a remarkable series of novels and other fictional writings that resulted in his being called the father of the English novel. He also wrote the poem The True-Born Englishman.

A painting of Daniel Defoe

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Surnames: a legacy of the Norman era which is still in place today

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Surnames: a legacy of the Norman era which is still in place today

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One of the most obvious changes to English culture after 1066 occurs in the names people called themselves. Most Saxon and early Celtic personal names disappeared quite quickly after the Norman Conquest. French names like William, Robert and Henry become popular among the general population – and for the first time, surnames start to appear.

Find out more here:

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Why do we have surnames? | English Heritage

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Have you ever wondered where your surname comes from? As Rowena Willard-Wright explains, surnames developed in England after the Norman Conquest in 1066.

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The Norman Invasion and beyond: what impact did the Norman Invasion have on society?

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The Norman Invasion and beyond: what impact did the Norman Invasion have on society?

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The Norman Invasion of England was led by William II of Normandy, who defeated Harold II of England in the Battle of Hastings in 1066. The Normans descended from Norse Vikings and protected the French coast from foreign attacks. One notable social impacts of this period was the introduction of surnames.

A section of the Bayeux Tapestry which depicts the Norman Invasion of England

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The Domesday Book: see how this book documented the changing landscape of Britain at the time

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The Domesday Book: see how this book documented the changing landscape of Britain at the time

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The Domesday Book was commissioned by William the Conqueror (1066–1087) at Christmas, 1085, and was completed less than a year later. The survey describes landholding and other forms of property ownership in 11th-century England. Although compiled by the Normans, it was clearly based on the administrative system established by the Anglo-Saxons. The division of English counties into shires, which lasted almost intact until 1974, was also based on Anglo-Saxon custom and is evidenced in Domesday Book.

A page from Great Doomsday Book showing the lands of Count Hugh and Robert, Count of Mortain

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Who were the Anglo-Saxons? | The British Library | The British Library

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A whistle-stop tour of Anglo-Saxon England: who were the Anglo-Saxons; where did they come from; what languages did they speak?

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Æthelberht’s laws: discover more about the earliest known record of law codes

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Æthelberht’s laws: discover more about the earliest known record of law codes

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Æthelberht’s laws set out a complex system of compensation and punishment, based on the status of the offender and the injured party. It has survived in a single manuscript written at Rochester in the early twelfth century. It is thought to have been issued around the year 600.

The opening of King Æthelberht’s law’s code

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The Anglo-Saxon period: what were the most important impacts of this period

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The Anglo-Saxon period: what were the most important impacts of this period

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The Anglo-Saxon period denotes the period of British history between about 450 and 1066, after their initial settlement and up until the Norman Conquest. This newly conquered territory, the old Roman Brittania, became known as England.

The Anglo-Saxon period includes the creation of an English nation, with many of the aspects that survive today, including regional government of shires and hundreds. During this period, Christianity was re-established and there was a flowering of literature and language. Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchical. At its head stood the king and members of the royal family, followed by the nobility, bishops and other churchmen. At the other extreme were unfree members of society, or slaves.

We can learn a substantial amount about the social organisation of Anglo-Saxon from two key sources: the earliest law-code, written for King Æthelberht of Kent (died 604); and the Domesday Book.

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The Roman Era: how did this period of history shape Britain

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The Roman Era: how did this period of history shape Britain

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The Roman invasion of Britain came in 43 AD. They took control violently but brought with them lots of things which changed the culture and fabric of society and the economy at that time. For example, they introduced new food such as apples, pears and walnuts; they built a huge road network; established major settlements such as London, Bath and York; and brought their language too – Latin. As time went on, the Romans pushed further north in Britain and fortified the northern border with Hadrian’s Wall, which spanned what is now Northern England.

The Roman Empire kept control of “Britannia” until their departure in 410 AD. The Germanic speaking Anglo-Saxons began a migration to the eastern coast of Britain where they established their own kingdoms and drove out the Romans as their empire was collapsing.

An image of Celts and Romans fighting

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Cael Hen – “Old King Cole”: discover an old nursery rhyme with Celtic roots

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Cael Hen – “Old King Cole”: discover an old nursery rhyme with Celtic roots

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"Old King Cole" is a British nursery rhyme first shown in 1708, although it is thought that this person could have been from the Celtic era. The poem describes a merry king who called for his pipe, bowl, and musicians, with the details varying among versions.

Watch a rendition of the nursery rhyme here:

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Celtic farming economy: see another side to Celtic life other than that of conflict and warriors

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Celtic farming economy: see another side to Celtic life other than that of conflict and warriors

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Although Celts have been described as warriors, they lived daily in a farm economy. The Celts were innovative with their farming techniques. They brought the iron plough to Britain and this brought about an agricultural revolution as they were able to cultivate rich valley and lowland soils.

A typical plough from the Iron-Age

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Celtic clans: the importance of the Celtic social structure

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Celtic clans: the importance of the Celtic social structure

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The clan was the basic unit of Celtic life and was a sort of extended family. Children were often raised by foster parents. Clans bound very loosely with other clans into tribes. Each tribe had its own social structure and customs and possibly its own gods. Celtic women were treated very well in their culture. Women were equal to men as they owned property themselves and could choose their own husbands. They could be war leaders as exemplified by Queen Boudicca who in 60-61 AD raised a revolt against the Romans. Another example Celt who is still spoken about today is Cael Hen (Old King Cole).

An image of a Celtic settlement

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Celtic influence: how this early society still shapes Great Britain today

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Celtic influence: how this early society still shapes Great Britain today

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British people (or Britons) were not the original inhabitants of what we call England today, but they were certainly one of the earlier inhabitants. They spoke the Insular Celtic language known as Common Brittonic and lived in Great Britain (England) during the Iron Age, the Roman Era (5) and the post-Roman Era in clans (2). Their main economy was farming (3) and they left many symbols which are believed may have represented their mythology and religious beliefs, such as Solomon’s Knot.

The Solomon’s Knot is a Celtic symbol that is believed to symbolize the union of man and the divine